Plants For Space References

This a list of publications that deal with growing plant in space.

From a spreadsheet of titles, authors and publication years we have tried to identify the publications by DOI, PUBMED and other URIs. Part of this identification was automated so that misidentification might have occurred. (For example the only reference to "Approaching the photosynthetic limits of crop productivity" is to be found on the "againstsatanism.com" website!!) On the other hand the original list has its faults too. Some "papers" don't seem to exist at all. Others have titles such as "Preface".

The most reliable links are those with both a DOI and a PUBMED id. (since they have come from pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov instead of google scholar)

Another Caveat: I don't know where this publication list came from, but it has (IMHO) an amazing number of very obscure references (e.g. this). A quick search of google scholar will find many, many more seamingly germane references not identified in this list. Make of that what you will.

Some of the unidentified references lead to [citation] in google scholar searches. viz:

"[Citation] means that Google Scholar has not been able to find a source for the publication, but that it has inferred that it exists because other publications cite it. These are articles which other scholarly articles have referred to, but which we haven't found online."

See also the errata page for referenees that really have nothing to do with plants for space and have been deleted.

1362 identified references out of 1425

Issledovaniyye mirovykh prostranstv reaktivnymi proborami (Exploration of world space with rockets

1926

K.E. Tsiolkovsky

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Green plants as atmosphere regenerators

1946

H.E. Ross

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Rockets and space travel. The future of flight beyond the stratosphere

1947

W. Ley

publication: (No Title)

Partial Abstract

Rockets, and space travel : The future of flight beyond the stratosphere | CiNii Research Rockets, and space travel : The future of flight beyond the stratosphere タイトル "Rockets, and space travel : The future of flight beyond the stratosphere" ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130282271535639680
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The food and atmosphere control problem on space vessels

1953

N.J. Bowman

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A high-temperature strain of Chlorella

1953

Constantine Sorokin, Jack Myers

publication: Science

Abstract

Various strains of the green alga Chlorella have been used extensively for study of photosynthesis and other physiological processes. Such work has been restricted almost exclusively to temperatures at or below 25°C. The choice of lower temperatures, probablymade on the basis of qualitative experience, is consistent with the ecological observation that "mlanyalgae do not survive a rise in temperature and thriveonly in cold waters".
doi: 10.1126/science.117.3039.330 link: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.117.3039.330
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Basic remarks on the use of plants as biological gas exchangers in a closed system

1954

J. Myers

publication: The Journal of aviation medicine

Abstract

This website requires cookies, and the limited processing of your personal data in order to function. By using the site you are agreeing to this as outlined in our privacy notice and cookie policy. To arrive at the top five similar articles we use a word-weighted algorithm to compare words from the Title and Abstract of each citation. [Investigation of the main gas-exchange parameters in the Mongolian gerbil in view of a space experiment]
pubmed: 13192052 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/13192052
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A balanced ecological system for space travel

1959

L.G. Rich, W.M. Ingram, B.B. Berger

publication: Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division

Abstract

The present paper discusses the nature and requirements of a sustenance system. Its components include a stabilization process for urine and feces, a reclamation process for recovery of potable water from body wastes, and a photosynthetic gas exchange process for production of oxygen and food from algae culture. The system described offers interesting research opportunities for sustaining man in a closed environment.
doi: 10.1061/JSEDAI.0000260 link: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/JSEDAI.0000260
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Algae and submarine habitability

1960

J.M. Leonard

publication: Developments in Industrial Microbiology: Volume 1

Abstract

The Chemistry Division of the Naval Research Laboratory has been studying submarine atmospheres for almost thirty years. The studies have included chemical means of carbon dioxide removal, alkaline metal oxides as sources of oxygen, and physical techniques for submarine air analysis. Such work becomes more and more important with the ever-increasing significance of the submarine in national defense. Studies of several new aspects of submarine habitability are being made; as a small part of the program, the writer has explored the literature to evaluate the possibilities of algae as means of long-term oxygen supply and carbon dioxide removal.
doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-5073-4_6 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-5073-4_6
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The use of photosynthesis in a closed ecological system

1960

J. Myers

publication: Physics and Medicine of the Atmosphere and Space

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Studies on algal gas exchangers with reference to space flight

1960

A.R. Krall, B. Kok

publication: Developments in Industrial Microbiology: Volume 1

Abstract

In this paper, we shall consider problems that may arise in placing man in a small, completely enclosed space for a long period, and our belief that an algal gas exchanger may assist in solving these problems. We shall give data on growth of a large algal culture, demonstrating that such a culture will grow reliably for long periods of time and will generate enough oxygen and food to satisfy a man’s requirements. It will do this within a reasonable volume using a relatively small amount of electrical energy.
doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-5073-4_7 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-5073-4_7
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Algae-primate gas exchange in a closed gas system

1961

E.A. Zuraw

publication: Dev. Ind. Microbiol.

Partial Abstract

Algae-primate gas exchange in a closed gas system. | CiNii Research Algae-primate gas exchange in a closed gas system. ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1572543024233468416
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Long-term nontoxic support of animal life with algae

1961

Russel O. Bowman,Fred W. Thomae

publication: Science (New York, N.Y.)

Abstract

One 40-g male albino mouse was kept in good health for 66 days in a chamber containing an algal photosynthetic gas exchanger. Carbon dioxide was well controlled, oxygen was slowly increased, and nitrogen was decreased in the chamber. Photosynthesis can support life in a hostile environment for extended periods of time.
doi: 10.1126/science.134.3471.55 pubmed: 17834303 link: https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.134.3471.55
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[citation] Investigations of selected higher plants as gas exchange mechanisms for closed ecological systems

1962

Boeing Company

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Effects of reduced oxygen tension on germination and seedling growth

1962

S. M. Siegel,L. A. Rosen

publication: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

Abstract

Seeds of lettuce, marigold, portulaca, cucumber, bean and eight other plants were incubated in various sub-atmospheric oxygen environments. All species tested were capable of appreciable germination in atmospheres containing 5% O< sub> 2 or less. Celosia, rice, and cucumber, germinated under anaerobic conditions. The rate of celosia germination under N< sub> 2 was increased almost to the aerobic level by ATP. Lettuce which germinates in 2% but not 1% O< sub> 2 was not benefitted by ATP when incubated without O< sub> 2. A
doi: 10.1073/pnas.48.5.725 pubmed: 16590936 link: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&jrnl=00319317&AN=157...
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The use of photosynthesis in the control of enclosed environments

1962

Clarence G. Golueke

publication: American journal of public health and the nation's health

Abstract

THE USE of photosynthesis in the con-trol of enclosed environments isa specialized application of the process to the recovery of oxygen, water, and nutritive organic materials contained in the solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes of a man or group of men constituting the crew of a space vehicle. The possibility of applying photosynthesis to the gas exchange requirements of the occupants of a space vehicle has been recognized for some time, and many studies have been made on the subject. 1-3 Although the stabilization of liquid and
doi: 10.2105/ajph.52.2.258 pubmed: 13900026 link: https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.52.2.258
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Mass culture of algae for food and other organic compounds

1962

R.W. Krauss

publication: American Journal of Botany

Abstract

Krauss, Robert W. (U. Maryland, College Park.) Mass culture of algae for food and other organic compounds. Amer. Jour. Bot. 49(4): 425–435. Illus. 1962.—Data are being collected which appear to support the use of unicellular algae for human food. Analyses of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and vitamins indicate that unicellular green algae, especially Chlorella, should be excellent sources of these nutrients. The effectiveness of the algae for the support of growth of chickens, mice, rats, and rabbits has been found to be good. However, only limited studies have been done with humans. The problem of acceptability varies with the nationality of the subjects and the preparation of the food. Serious gaps still exist both in the technology of production and in the experimentation required to establish nutritional value. Nutrition studies using algae free of bacteria are urgently needed.
doi: 10.1002/j.1537-2197.1962.tb14961.x link: https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1962.tb14961.x
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Balanced aquatic microcosms—Their implications for space travel

1963

R.J. Beyers

publication: The American Biology Teacher

Abstract

Data are summarized showing that the course of diurnal metabolism in several different types of balanced aquatic microcosms tends to follow the same pattern. Both net photosynthesis and nighttime respiration are maximal in the first half of the light or dark periods. This phenomenon also occurs in natural balanced aquatic communities. The importance of this metabolic pattern to closed life support systems of an ecological nature is pointed out, and ways of avoiding adverse effects to astronauts are suggested.
doi: 10.2307/4440414 link: https://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-abstract/25/6/422/6235
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A study of the feasibility of oxygen production by algae for nuclear submarines

1963

P.G. Hannan, L. Shuler, C. Patouillet

publication: US Navy Res. Lab. Rept

Abstract

The mass culture of algae has been considered as a means of removing carbon dioxide and replenishing oxygen in the atmosphere of a nuclear submarine. For the past 2-12 years the feasibility of this method has been investigated in the laboratory by measuring the growth rate and the oxygen production the Sorokin strain of Chlorella pyrenoidosa under various conditions of culture. The results obtained with a small pilot plant containing 6200 ml of algal suspension have been evaluated the effects of light intensity, rate of stirring, rate of carbon dioxide supply, and other variables were part of this study. Light energy was supplied by six 1500-watt incandescent lamps which extended through the suspension and were encased in 50-mm O.D. cooling jackets. When the light intensity at the surface of these jackets was 34,000 footcandles the limit with the equipment at hand, the oxygen production was 4500 cc per hour. The dependability of the algal system in providing a constant supply of oxygen has been assured by this study also, the volume requirements of the algal system are competitive with existing systems for carbon dioxide removal and oxygen production.
link: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD0420927
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Ecological considerations of a permanent lunar base

1963

S.P. Johnson, J.C. Finn

publication: The American Biology Teacher

Abstract

The exciting problems which a lunar base creates for organisms, man, and plants and animals are described in this paper. Some proposals are presented for the solution of these important problems in space research. The authors are Principal Scientist and Technical Director, Lunar Base Research, Aerospace Sciences Division, respectively.
doi: 10.2307/4440444 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4440444
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Space biology: Ecological aspects--Introductory remarks

1963

J. Myers

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Some ecological aspects of space biology

1963

F.B. Taub

publication: The American Biology Teacher

Partial Abstract

Dr. Taub is Research Assistant Professor in the College of Fisheries at the University of Washington. She was responsible for the organization of the AIBS Symposium which these papers represent. In this paper she presents the interesting idea that fish are quite appropriate organisms for the closed ecological systems needed in space travel. It is Contribution No. 159, College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle. This symposium was organized to bring together two complex groups: space biologists, who are ...
doi: 10.2307/4440413 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4440413
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Martian biology: The experimentalist’s approach

1963

S. M. SIEGEL,L. A. HALPERN,C. GIUMARRO,G. RENWICK,G. DAVIS

publication: Nature

Abstract

Recently Salisbury, in a provocative article, has constructed a speculative picture of possible Martian life-forms, and of possible biogeochemical cycles in which such forms might participate.
We are in general agreement with the concepts which Salisbury has presented; as experimentalists, however, we question his reservations about tho use of simulated environments. Speculation or even sound theorization notwithstanding, the sole model for life now available to us is life on Earth. Because statistical factors influence evolution, one would expect even identical planets to exhibit appreciable divergences in life-forms. Nevertheless, Earth and Mars might contain local environments in which convergent forms could arise. Thus, Salisbury suggests that the higher terrestrial plant, rather than the lower forms traditionally postulated: in astronomical circles, is a good model for explaining some of the phenomena which have been held to indicate the presence of life on Mars. On the other hand, he distinguishes higher plants as plants which “universally require oxygen”. This distinction suggests a divergonce between the terrestrial model and its Martian counterpart which we believe may not exist.

doi: 10.1038/202109a0 link: https://www.nature.com/articles/197329a0
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Use of algae and other plants in the development of life support systems

1963

C. H. Ward,S. S. Wilks,H. L. Craft,C. H. Wilks

publication: The American Biology Teacher

Partial Abstract

Man's occupancy of space depends not only on his tolerance to hostile conditions existing there, but also, on how much of his natural environment he can control, contain, and take with him. Past experiments have demonstrated that man's ability to function in sealed environments for long periods is directly dependent on, among other factors, the reliability of his life support system in-supplying food, water, a breathable atmos-phere, and suitable temperature control. Several possible methods are available for supplying the space traveler ...
doi: 10.2307/4440442 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4440442
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Plants at sub-atmospheric oxygen-levels

1963

SM Siegel, LA Rosen, C Giumarro

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Numerous examples are reported of the favourable effects of reduced oxygen levels on some plant growth processes, including germination, pigmentation and resistance to heat damage. The plants used in these studies included beet, celosia, Dianthus, marigold, tobacco, tomato, turnip, cucumber and peppermint.[See also HA., 32: 4098 and 33: 22 and 96.]-Union Carbide Res. Inst., Tarrytown, NY ...
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19630306497
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Role of plants in closed systems

1964

C.G. Golueke, W.J. Oswald

publication: Annual Review of Plant Physiology

Abstract

In extended sojourns in environments devoid of the essentials for mainte- nance of human life, and to which supplies could be transported only with great difficulty, logistics demand that a regenerating system be used to provide those essentials, and that in effect a closed system be established. The reason for the need of a closed or regenerative system is indicated by the data presented in Table I, in which a comparison is made between an open and a closed system with respect to weight requirements of certain essential materials that would be used by a man during a year's sojourn. As the data demonstrate, the weight requirements of an open system are manyfold those of a closed system.
doi: 10.1146/annurev.pp.15.060164.002131 link: https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pp.15.060164.002131
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Developing an unconventional food, algae, by continuous culture under high light intensity

1964

R.O. Matthern, R.B. Koch

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Chlorella 71105 was grown in a steady-state, completely mixed system in a culture chamber illuminated by 52, 000 lumens of light. The culture medium and the design and operation of the culture chamber are described in detail.-US Army Natick Labs, Mass. 3.light intensity ...
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19650302373
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Urine as a nitrogen source for photosynthetic gas exchangers

1964

V.H. Lynch, E.C.B. Ammann, R.M. Godding

publication: Aerospace medicine
pubmed: 14222392 link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14222392/
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[citation] Plant systems as long-term flight nourishment sources

1964

S.S. Wilks

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Study of a photosynthetic gas exchanger. A quantitative repetition of the Priestley experiment

1964

J.H. Eley, J. Myers

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Photosynthetic gas exchange experiment using dwarf mouse and illuminated suspension of Chlorella ellipsoidea
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19650048301
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Discussion: Combined photosynthetic regenerative systems

1964

R.W. Krauss

publication: unknown

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Discussion: Plant systems as long term flight nourishment sources

1964

C.R. Goldman

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Algae systems

1964

Yi Ting Neo,Wen Yi Chia,Siew Shee Lim,Cheng Loong Ngan,Tonni Agustiono Kurniawan,Kit Wayne Chew

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Combined photosynthetic regenerative systems

1964

J.E. Myers

publication: Conference on Nutrition in Space and Related Waste Problems.

Abstract

Combined Photosynthetic Regenerative Systems - NASA/ADS Combined Photosynthetic Regenerative Systems © The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System
link: https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964NASSP..70..283M/abstract
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Certain problems of human ecology inclosed systems of chemical cycles

1965

E.I.A. Shepelev

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Algal bioregenerative systems

1966

R.L. Miller, C.H. Ward

publication: [Technical report] SAM-TR. USAF School of Aerospace Medicine

Abstract

Algae may be used for partial regeneration of man’s requirements for life in a closed environment. Feasibility has been demonstrated with model systems, but established principles of algal metabolism impose severe restrictions on the design of thermodynamically efficient, low-volume and low-weight algal gas exchangers. Review of available data on photosynthetic gas exchangers now permits verification of design parameters predicted almost 10 years ago. Experimentally achievable values of electrical efficiency are only a fraction of the theoretical. Significant improvement over or attainment of theoretical values will require major improvement in the conversion of electrical energy into light energy or conversion of light energy into chemical energy by the green plant. Development of a basic design theory would be greatly simplified by a definite mission-oriented goal, for example, a planetary base. At present there is no material advantage among existing algal exchangers since criteria used for design require compromises of weight, volume, and power. Most algal gas exchangers are inadequately described. More experimental data, obtained by extensive operation of prototype systems, are needed for accurate logistic evaluation. Weight, volume, and power flexibility may ultimately be of advantage in the design of life-support systems for specific space missions, provided longterm reliability can be demonstrated. This paper attempts to compare and evaluate the available information on algal photosynthetic gas exchange systems.
doi: 10.1007/978-1-4684-1372-4_9 pubmed: 4379945 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-1372-4_9
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Closed Life Support System

1967

Jingfei Hu,Shuaishuai Li,Hong Liu,Dawei Hu

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Biochemical changes in the developing wheat seedling in the weightless state

1968

H.M. Conrad

publication: BioScience

Abstract

The characteristic fashion in which plants respond to gravity has been known for centuries. It is known that the recognizable effects of this gravitational pull can be nullified in either a mature plant or a germinating seedling merely by rotating it about its horizontal axis (Ruckland et al., 1962). We have now shown through the BIOSAT-ELLITE program that the overall ap-pearance of the seedlings grown on the horizontal clinostat resemble the seed-lings grown in space. The two groups of seedlings cannot be distinguished by visual inspection alone.
doi: 10.2307/1294316 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1294316
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The effect of weightlessness on wheat seedling morphogenesis and histochemistry

1968

S.W. Gray, B.F. Edwards

publication: Bioscience

Abstract

Gravity on Earth is the most ubiquitous and the most unchanging of the readily observed factors of the environment. Although its direction can be changed and its force can be increased in the laboratory, gravity could be decreased or abolished for only minutes or seconds until Earth-orbiting satellites became available. This experiment is specifically concerned with the effects of gravity, or of its absence, on the growth, morphology, cytology, and histochemistry of the wheat seedlings.
Our working hypotheses were that a decrease in gravity will affect the growth of roots and shoots of seedlings and that the state of weightlessness may destroy the normal orientation of mitoses and alter the direction and rate of cell elongation. As a result of this, gravity-dependent structures such as monocotyledonous roots and shoots may become oriented at random in the weightless state and may show evidence of altered physiological function.

doi: 10.2307/1294315 link: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=a9h&AN=32794647&site=ehos...
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Growth physiology of the wheat seedling in space

1968

Charles J. Lyon

publication: Bioscience

Abstract

Wheat seedlings which grew without 4 gravity effect were the object of this BIOSATELLITE experiment. Analyses of the effects of weightlessness on the anatomy and biochemical processes of a wheat seedling would provide the chance to seek details of the germination steps, the growth rates of seedling Organs, and the orientation of each as evidence for growth physiology during orbital flight. The area of growth regulators was particularly promising because auxin, the universal hormone in the higher plants, is known to be moved by gravity within seedling organs (Boy- sen-Jensen, 1936; Gillespie & Thimann, 1961; Goldsmith & Wilkins, 1964). The limitation of the multiple experiment, however, to the use of a grass-type seedling during the 2 days of orbit forced an emphasis on the seedling roots which develop early. The shoot is a short, atypical organ.
The use of seeds buried in moist soil could not be considered because growth rates would be difficult to measure and the orientation of all organs would be disturbed by contacts with the solid particles. We were obliged, therefore, to provide for growth of the seedlings with both roots and coleoptiles in air. The method would also keep the organs free of chemical contamination and avoid distortions of internal morphology.

doi: 10.2307/1294314 link: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=a9h&AN=32794646&site=ehos...
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Effects of prolonged reduced pressure on the growth and nitrogen content of turnip (Brassica rapa L). SAM-TR-68-100

1968

R.L. Mansell G.W. Rose

publication: [Technical report] SAM-TR. USAF School of Aerospace Medicine

Abstract

Effects of prolonged reduced pressure on the growth and nitrogen content of turnip (Brassica rapa L.). SAM-TR-68-100 RL Mansell, GW Rose, B Richardson, RL Miller Nitrogen
pubmed: 5305492 link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5305492/
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The liminal angle of a plagiogeotropic organ under weightlessness

1968

S.P. Johnson, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Bioscience

Abstract

The mode of geotropic reaction of the pepper plant, Capsicum annuum, is specific for each organ. The main root and lateral roots carry out a positive or downward geotropic reaction. The coleoptile, stem, lateral branches, and leaves carry out a negative or upward geotropic reaction. Reactions are expressed as curvatures due to differential cell elongation.
Plagiogeotropic organs, which as a result of positive or negative geotroism, orient their axes at an angle to the plumb tine, Other examples are lateral branches and secondary roots. The liminal angle is the angle between the plumb line and the plant organ. In this study the liminal angle is the angle between the leaf or stem and the plumb line. Epinasty is an active curvature by which the dorsal side becomes convex. Leaf or branch epinasty is the term used to express curvatures formed by leaves and branches following rotation of the plant on a horizontal plane. Leaf epinasty involves both the petiole and leaf blade. Leaf epinasty may be pro- duced by horizontal rotation on a clino- stat, tumbling on a horizontal clinostat, or intermittent rotation on a horizontal plane. The horizontal clinostat has provided a means for subjecting plants to essentially omnilateral geotropic stimu- lation along the major axes since the time of Sachs’s studies in 1885.
The present study was based on the hypothesis that the low level of gravity encountered in orbital flight would produce results similar to or greater than those noted under conditions of rotation on the horizontal clinostat, ie., the liminal angle of the leaf will be increased along with the mobilization of carbohydrates and amino acids.

doi: 10.2307/1294318 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1294318
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Biochemical changes in the endosperm of wheat seedlings in the weightless state

1968

S.P. Johnson

publication: BioScience

Abstract

The role of carbohydrates and amino acids on plant growth is less understood than auxin. Although starch grain migration, which occurs simultaneously with geotropic-induced curvature of the organ, has been the subject of a large number of studies, the exact role of starch grains remains a matter of con- troversy. Even less is known about the participation of the soluble sugars, glucose and sucrose, and the amino acids. In preliminary investigations it has been found that horizontal rotation did not affect carbohydrate distribution in the endosperm when compared to the endosperm of normal upright plants. Tt was noted, however, that a general decrease in free amino acids occurred after 72 and 96 hours of rotation on the horizontal clinostat (Tables 1 and 2). The purpose of this investigation was to determine if the endosperm, a storage organ, would produce metabolic changes in the wheat seedling in a manner noted above, following exposure to the low levels of gravity encountered during orbital flight.
doi: 10.2307/1294317 link: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=a9h&AN=32794651&site=ehos...
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Experimental biological life-support system. II. Gas exchange between man and microalgae culture in 30 days experiment

1968

L.V. Kirensky, L.A. Terskov, J.I. Gitelson, G.M. Lisovsky, B.G. Kovrov, Yu N. Okladnikov

publication: Life sciences and space research

Abstract

The experiments of a prolonged stay by man in a closed atmosphere regenerated by a biological method have been examined. In the course of the experiment, a study of isolated and compatible links of a gas-closed system of "man-microalga" was carried out. The main emphasis was placed on the study of the biological compatibility of the links of the system and primarily of the effect of gaseous metabolites built up in the system of man. The dynamics of a number of physiological parameters of the man under experiment were studied. The regular functional tests of the respiratory and cardiovascular system were carried out. An electrocardiogram was made and respiratory rate and pulse were registered. Oxyhemogram investigations and laboratory clinical examinations were also performed, as well as some psychological tests. It was possible to equalize the respiratory gas ratio by the composition of the cultural environment for algae and by the nutrition ration of man. This eliminates time limit for the life maintenance system, especially on microalga photosynthesis. The results of the experiments permit drawing a conclusion on the biological compatibility of man and microalgae in their prolonged direct gas contact. Thus the possibility of obtaining a balanced atmosphere regeneration system on the basis of counterbalanced gas exchange between man and controlled photosynthesis of algae has been proven experimentally.
pubmed: 11982027 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11982027
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Bioregenerative Systems

1968

Giulio Metelli,Elena Lampazzi,Riccardo Pagliarello,Marco Garegnani,Luca Nardi,Maurizio Calvitti,Luca Gugliermetti,Riccardo Restivo Alessi,Eugenio Benvenuto,Angiola Desiderio

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Theoretical and experimental decisions in the creation of an artificial ecosystem for human life support in space

1971

L.V. Kirensky, J.I. Gitelson, L.A. Terskov, B.G. Kovrov, G.M. Lisovsky, Yu N. Okladnikov

publication: Life sciences and space research

Abstract

All of man's former space flights were not real ventures into space in the biological sense, as his life was supported with unregenerated earth supplies. The coming stage of space exploration requires man's long existence in the cosmos and on the other planets. This stage of man's activity outside the earth become possible only by creating small man-made ecosystems, permitting the support of his metabolism by the recycling of substances of the terrestrial biosphere. Creation of such systems is a new scientific and technical task. Man-made ecosystems are a new product of man's activity, which have no complete analogy, either in nature, or in technology. Stochastic mechanisms, which stabilize biogeocenosis, cannot be effective in small ecosystems. A technique of parametric control over biosynthesis made it possible to calculate, and put to practice, an ecosystem for man with a cyclic regeneration of the atmosphere, water and, partially, food. The specific bio-technological properties of small man-made ecosystems are being analysed. The possibility of their application for man's excursions into space and for the settlement of other planets is being considered.
pubmed: 12206189 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/12206189
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Germination and growth of selected higher plants in a simulated space cabin environment. AMRL-TR-70-121

1971

C.T. Lind

publication: unknown

Abstract

Four species of higher plants including Raphanus sativus, Lactuca sativa, Brassica oleracea, and Capsicum frutescens were exposed to an environment simulating the conditions within the NASA Skylab. Seventy-two hundred seeds and four hundred eighty mature seedlings were placed in altitude chambers for a ten-day period. One chamber was held at 260 mm Hg total pressure (27,000 ft) and a duplicate chamber was held at 725 mm Hg total pressure and served as a control. Both chambers had equal vartial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide. No significant differences in seed germination or seedling development were apparent between the control and reduced pressure treatments. All species obtained a high germination percentage during the ten-day exposure to the simulated space cabin environment.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19710021699/downloads/19710021699.pdf
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Biological life support systems

1972

Xiangdan Jin,Weidang Ai,Chengxian Li,Liangchang Zhang,Qingni Yu,Yongkang Tang,Wenyi Dong

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Bioastronautics data book

1973

J.F. Parker, V.R. West

publication: Bioastronautics Data Book: Second Edition
link: https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1973NASSP3006.....P/0000001.000.html
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Toxic gases emitted by Chlorella

1975

I.I. Gitelson, B.G. Kovrov, G.M. Lisovsky, Y.N. Okladikova, M.S. Rerberg, F.Y. Sidko, I.A. Terskov

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Life support system with autonomous control employing plant photosynthesis

1976

I.I. Gitelson,I.A. Terskov,B.G. Kovrov,F.Ya. Sidko,G.M. Lisovsky,Yu.N. Okladnikov,V.N. Belyanin,I.N. Trubachov,M.S. Rerberg

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

This research was aimed at obtaining a closed control system. This was achieved by placing all the technological processes providing for human vital activities within the hermetically sealed space, and by transferring the entire control and guidance of these processes to people inhabiting the system. In contrast to existing biological life support systems, man has been included not only as a participant of metabolism, but as an operator who is the central figure in collecting information, making decisions and controlling all technological processes. To tackle this problem, the "BIOS-3" experimental complex was created for performing long-term experiments using different structures of biological life-support system. The experiment lasted six months and consisted of three stages. During the first stage the system was comprised of two equivalent phytotrons with the culture of wheat and an assortment of vegetable plants, and the living compartment. At the second stage, one of the phytotrons was removed while a compartment of chlorella cultivators was introduced. The third stage differed from the second, the former using wheat phytotron and the latter employing phytotron with an assortment of vegetable cultures. Three men inhabited the system simultaneously. The experiment demonstrated that a biological life support system controlled autonomously from the inside is feasible within a small confined space. However, immunological and microbiological research shows, that the medium created by the system is not fully adequate for man. In conclusion, some prospects have been outlined for further studies of biological life support systems.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(76)90103-x pubmed: 11829022 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009457657690103X
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Plant spacing for controlled environment plant growth

1978

R.P. Prince, J.W. Bartok

publication: Transactions of the ASAE

Abstract

THE design and operating characteristics of the slip-joint spacing device for use in controlled environ-ment plant growth systems is described. A description of the spacing concept is presented. Two growth experi-ments are described.
doi: 10.13031/2013.35299 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=35299
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Effects of simulated hypogravity on respiration and photosynthesis of higher plants

1978

C.H. Ward,J.M. King

publication: Life sciences and space research Proceedings of the Open Meeting of the Working Group on Space Biology of the Twenty-First Plenary Meeting of COSPAR

Abstract

Clinostat rotation about a horizontal axis mechanically cancels the directional component of the gravity force vector which is biologically sensed by plants. However, efficiency of clinostats as simulators of weightlessness for prolonged periods has not been demonstrated conclusively. Morphological appearance of plants in orbital flight may resemble their counterparts on earth-based clinostats, but physiological responses may differ. Photosynthesis experiments with algae have been performed in satellites orbiting the earth, but similar experiments with higher plants have not been conducted. This paper describes an experimental apparatus for measurement of photosynthetic and respiratory rates of whole plants on rotating clinostats. Initial experiments show an enhancement of gas exchange during rotation about a horizontal axis.
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-023416-8.50043-X link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978008023416850043X
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Opportunity to use higher plants in life support system on the Moon

1978

IA Terskov, GM Lisovskiĭ, SA Ushakova, OV Parshina, LP Moiseenko

publication: Kosmicheskaia biologiia i aviakosmicheskaia meditsina

Abstract

The paper discusses the possibility of repeated termination of plant vegetation by prolonged darkness approximating the lunar night. This may be helpful for the incorporation of higher plants into the life support system of lunar bases, the solar light being used for illumination. In this connection vegetables (beet Bordeaux, turnip Petrovskaya, carrot Chantanet, dill, radish Virovsky white) and wheat (variety Sonora) were cultivated during the lunar light-dark cycle (i. e. 15 day light: 15 day dark). The experiments demonstrated that traditional plant products can be obtained under the conditions of lunar photoperiod. Grain of wheat grown during the lunar photoperiod were tested as seed material for further cultivation under similar conditions.
pubmed: 26823 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794900388
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Effect of day and night temperatures during floral induction on morphology of soybeans

1978

J.F. Thomas, C.D. Raper

publication: Agronomy Journal

Abstract

Temperature affects the vegetative and reproductive morphology of soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merrill]. Descriptive information of the effects of temperature will assist in development of a dynamic simulation model. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of day and night temperatures on growth and development of the determinate soybean cultivar ‘Ransom’. Seedlings were grown under a long-day (non-inductive) photoperiod at 26/22 C day/night temperatures in a temperature controlled greenhouse until the expansion of the first trifoliolate leaf. Plants then were moved into five controlled-environment chambers programmed for 9-hour photoperiods with temperature regimes of 14/10, 18/14, 22/18, 26/22, and 30/26 C. At the beginning of each night, groups of plants were moved from the five day temperatures to each of the five night temperatures to obtain a total of 25 day/night temperature combinations. Significant interactions between day and night temperatures for all measured characteristics except branch internode length made general evaluations of simple effects of day and night temperatures difficult. Instead, responses to the specific combinations of day/night temperature were considered. At the conclusion of 50 consecutive short days, area per leaf and vegetative dry weight were greatest at 26/10 C temperatures while pod dry weight was greatest at the higher night temperature combination of 26/22 C. The lowest net carbon dioxide exchange rate was obtained at temperatures of 14/26 C, and the highest rates at 26/14 and 26/18 C. The extent of apical dominance, given as the ratio between main stem height and total branch length, was greatest for plants from either warm day and warm night or cool day and cool night combinations. Warm night temperatures, in conjunction with any of the day temperatures, shortened the time from first exposure to inductive photoperiod to anthesis. At the four coolest day/night temperature combinations (14/10, 14/14, 18/10, and 18/14 C) pods were not formed even though floral initiation had occurred
doi: 10.2134/agronj1978.00021962007000060001x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj1978.00021962007000060001x
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Controlled-environment agricultural systems as food sources for large space habitats

1978

J.M. Phillips

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Space ecosynthesis: An approach to the design of closed ecosystems for use in space

1978

R.D. MacElroy, M.M. Averner

publication: NASA Technical Report

Abstract

The use of closed ecological systems for the regeneration of wastes, air, and water is discussed. It is concluded that such systems, if they are to be used for the support of humans in space, will require extensive mechanical and physico-chemical support. The reason for this is that the buffering capacity available in small systems is inadequate, and that natural biological and physical regulatory mechanisms rapidly become inoperative. It is proposed that mathematical models of the dynamics of a closed ecological system may provide the best means of studying the initial problems of ecosystem closure. A conceptual and mathematical model of a closed ecosystem is described which treats the biological components as a farm, calculates the rates of flow of elements through the system by mass-balance techniques and control theory postulates, and can evaluate the requirements for mechanical buffering activities. It is suggested that study of the closure of ecosystems can significantly aid in the establishment of general principles of ecological systems.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19780018797
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Uniformity studies with lettuce: results of growth and tissue analysis.

1979

W.L. Berry, D.P. Ormrod, P.A. Hammer, J.C. McFarlane, D.T. Krizek, R.W. Langhans, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Phytotronic Newsletter, undated, No. No.19 [Appendix], 62-66 ref. 8

Abstract

Lettuces, cv. Grand Rapids, were grown in growth chambers by several independent investigators at 7 places under similar cultural and environmental conditions. Data are presented on their growth and mineral element composition.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19790373186
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Photosynthesis and photorespiration in whole plants of wheat

1979

A. Gerbaud, A. Andre

publication: Plant Physiology

Abstract

Wheat was cultivated in a small phytotronic chamber. 18O2 was used to measure the O2 uptake by the plant, which was recorded simultaneously with the O2 evolution, net CO2 uptake, and transpiration. At normal atmospheric CO2 concentration, photorespiration, measured as O2 uptake, was as important as the net photosynthesis. The level of true O2 evolution was independent of CO2 concentration and stayed nearly equal to the sum of net CO2 photosynthesis and O2 uptake. We conclude that at a given light intensity, O2 and CO2 compete for the reducing power produced at constant rate by the light reactions of photosynthesis.
doi: 10.1104/pp.64.5.735 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/64/5/735/6077656
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Closed regenerative life support sytems for space travel: Their development poses fundamental questions for ecological science

1979

D.B. Botkin, S. Golubic, B. Maguire, B. Moore, H.J. Morowitz, L.B. Slobodkin

publication: Life sciences and space research

Abstract

Closed regenerative life support systems for space travel: their development poses fundamental questions for ecological science Life Sci Space Res. 1979;17:3-12. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023416-8.50005-2. 1 Environmental Studies Program and Department of Biological Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.
doi: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023416-8.50005-2 pubmed: 12001968 link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12001968/
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Closed ecology in space from a bioengineering perspective

1979

Robert W. Krauss

publication: Life sciences and space research

Abstract

The advent of the capability for long-range manned space travel and for a space shuttle system to support long-term habitation in space laboratories has rekindled the interest of scientists in the concept of complete bioregenerative-systems to serve as life support for astronauts engaged in exploration and exploitation of the space environment. The idea of a recycling system that will provide a sustaining environment for man in a closed space is not new. It captured man's imagination long before Jules Werne immortalized Captain Nemo as
doi: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023416-8.50006-4 pubmed: 12001966 link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=MAnLBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA13&dq=Closed+ecology+in+spac...
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[citation] Closed systems: Man and higher plants

1979

G.M. Lisovsky

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Literature review of human microbes’ interaction with plants

1980

B. Maguire Jr

publication: NASA Technical Report

Abstract

An analysis of the available literature suggests that human-carried microorganisms, which cannot practically be excluded (at this time) from human supporting agricultural systems of extra-terrestrial stations, may be an important problem. This is because these microorganisms may have several kinds of deleterious effects; some of these, especially those which might damage the plants on which the people depend for oxygen and food, could be extremely serious. It appears that this potential problem can be avoided by the inclusion of carefully screened or constructed, but more or less normal, phylloplane and rhizosphere microbial communities.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19820016107/downloads/19820016107.pdf
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CELSS scenario analysis: Breakeven calculation

1980

R.M. Mason

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

This report summarizes the results of effort aimed toward the development of a rudimentary model that illustrates the relative mass requirements of food production components in a controlled ecology life support system (CELSS) based on regenerative concepts. The report is intended as a working paper which can provide a basis for further model development and analysis.
The model and analytic results can be useful for developing an understanding of the mass requirements for food production in a CELSS and how these requirements compare with food resupply requirements. Such an understanding aids in making knowledgeable decisions about research investment options in regenerative life support. More importantly, the documentation of the model and results reveals gaps in knowledge and thereby provides guidance for improving the model and the analysis procedures.

link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19820016106/downloads/19820016106.pdf
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Effect of CO2, O2, and light on photosynthesis and photorespiration of wheat

1980

A. Gerbaud, A. André

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Unidirectional O(2) fluxes were measured with (18)O(2) in a whole plant of wheat cultivated in a controlled environment. At 2 or 21% O(2), O(2) uptake was maximum at 60 microliters per liter CO(2). At lower CO(2) concentrations, it was strongly inhibited, as was photosynthetic O(2) evolution. At 2% O(2), there remained a substantial O(2) uptake, even at high CO(2) level; the O(2) evolution was inhibited at CO(2) concentrations under 330 microliters per liter. The O(2) uptake increased linearly with light intensity, starting from the level of dark respiration. No saturation was observed at high light intensities. No significant change in the gas-exchange patterns occurred during a long period of the plant life. An adaptation to low light intensities was observed after 3 hours illumination. These results are interpreted in relation to the functioning of the photosynthetic apparatus and point to a regulation by the electron acceptors and a specific action of CO(2). The behavior of the O(2) uptake and the study of the CO(2) compensation point seem to indicate the persistence of mitochondrial respiration during photosynthesis.
doi: 10.1104/pp.66.6.1032 pubmed: 16661571 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/66/6/1032/6077699
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Major gene control of nitrate reductase activity in common wheat

1980

L.W. Gallagher, K.M. Soliman, C.O. Qualset, R.C. Huffaker, D.W. Rains

publication: Crop Science

Abstract

Two high-yielding, short-statured spring wheats (Triticum aestivum L.), ‘Anza’ and ‘UC 44-111,’ differ in certain characteristics of N metabolism. Nitrate reductase activity (NRA), measured in vitro on shoots or lamina of seedling plants, was about 8 and 18 µmoles of nitriteproduced/hour/g fresh weight for Anza and UC 44-111, respectively. The genetic basis for this difference was investigated with an in vitro NRA assay on seedling plants to determine the NRA frequency distributions of parents, F1, F2, reciprocal BCF2 and randomly derived F6 lines. All data were consistent in showing that UC 44-111 has a single dominant gene (Nra) which accounted for most of the variability observed for NRA.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1980.0011183X002000060010x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1980.0011183X002000060010x
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Controlled environment guidelines for plant research

1980

T.W. Tibbitts, T.T. Kozlowski

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Nitrogen assimilation, root growth and whole plant responses of soybean to root temperature, and to carbon dioxide and light in the aerial environment

1981

THOMAS W. Jr RUFTY,C. DAVID Jr RAPER,WILLIAM A. JACKSON

publication: New Phytologist

Abstract

Vegetative soybean plants were exposed to root temperatures of 18, 24, and 30 °C in each of three aerial environments varying in light and CO2. Under high light (700 mUE m-2 s-1) at ambient CO2 (400 mUl l-1) nitrate absorption and root growth were less at 18 and 30°C than 24°C. Both nitrate absorption and root growth were more sensitive to increasing root temperature under low light (325 μE m-2 s-1) and less sensitive under enriched CO2 (1000 μl l-1). As indicated by dry matter accumulation, net flux of photosynthate to the roots was correlated with the changes in aerial environment. It was concluded from these relationships that the variation in root growth and nitrate uptake resulted from altered utilization of carbohydrates in the roots and that altered utilization of carbohydrates with increasing root temperature resulted from disproportionate partitioning of carbohydrate among root functions.
Although differences occurred in the amount of nitrogen translocated out of the root, nitrogen accumulation in the shoot was primarily a function of nitrate absorbed. Restrictions in dry matter accumulation in the shoot were similar to restrictions observed in the root. A decrease in emergence of new leaves was often the first response observed, with decreases in leaf area and dry wt occurring later. The integrated plant response to moderate root temperature stress is interpreted as evidence for an interdependent plant system, predominantly regulated by carbohydrate flux to the root and nitrogen flux to the shoot.

doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1981.tb01736.x link: https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1981.tb01736.x
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Low-pressure greenhouses and plants for a manned research station on Mars

1981

P.J. Boston

publication: Journal of the British Interplanetary Society

Partial Abstract

Low-Pressure Greenhouses and Plants for a Manned Research Station on Mars - NASA/ADS Low-Pressure Greenhouses and Plants for a Manned Research Station on Mars ...
link: https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981JBIS...34..189B/abstract
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Nitrate reduction in roots as affected by the presence of potassium and by flux of nitrate through the roots

1981

T.W. Rufty, W.A. Jackson, C.D. Raper Jr

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Dark-grown, detopped corn seedlings (cv. Pioneer 3369A) were exposed to treatment solutions containing Ca(NO(3))(2), NaNO(3), or KNO(3); KNO(3) plus 50 or 100 millimolar sorbitol; and KNO(3) at root temperatures of 30, 22, or 16 C. In all experiments, the accelerated phase of NO(3) (-) transport had previously been induced by prior exposure to NO(3) (-) for 10 hours. The experimental system allowed direct measurements of net NO(3) (-) uptake and translocation, and calculation of NO(3) (-) reduction in the root. The presence of K(+) resulted in small increases in NO(3) (-) uptake, but appreciably stimulated NO(3) (-) translocation out of the root. Enhanced translocation was associated with a marked decrease in the proportion of absorbed NO(3) (-) that was reduced in the root. When translocation was slowed by osmoticum or by low root temperatures, a greater proportion of absorbed NO(3) (-) was reduced in the presence of K(+). Results support the proposition that NO(3) (-) reduction in the root is reciprocally related to the rate of NO(3) (-) transport through the root symplasm.
doi: 10.1104/pp.68.3.605 pubmed: 16661965 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/68/3/605/6077747
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Responses to photoperiod

1981

Pasqualina Gaetano,Vilma Duarte,Anja Striberny,David Hazlerigg,Even H. Jørgensen,Marco A. Campinho,Juan Fuentes

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Treatment of CELSS and PCELSS waste to product nutrients for plant growth

1981

M. Modell, H. Meissner, M. Karel, J. Carden, S. Lewis

publication: Meeting: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Intersociety Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

The research program entitled 'Development of a Prototype Experiment for Treating CELSS (Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems) and PCELSS (Partially Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems) Wastes to Produce Nutrients for Plant Growth' consists of two phases: (1) the development of the neccessary facilities, chemical methodologies and models for meaningful experimentation, and (2) the application of what methods and devices are developed to the interfacing of waste oxidation with plant growth. Homogeneous samples of freeze-dried human feces and urine have been prepared to ensure comparability of test results between CELSS waste treatment research groups. A model of PCELSS food processing wastes has been developed, and an automated gas chromatographic system to analyze oxidizer effluents was designed and brought to operational status. Attention is given the component configuration of the wet oxidation system used by the studies.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820027372
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An approach to the mathematical modeling of a controlled ecological life support system

1981

M. Averner

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

An approach to the design of a computer based model of a closed ecological life-support system suitable for use in extraterrestrial habitats is presented. The model is based on elemental mass balance and contains representations of the metabolic activities of biological components. The model can be used as a tool in evaluating preliminary designs for closed regenerative life support systems and as a method for predicting the behavior of such systems.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820016108
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Controlled ecological life support system: First principal investigators meeting

1981

B. Moore III, R.A. Wharton Jr, R.D. MacElroy

publication: Controlled Ecological Life Support System: First Principal Investigators Meeting

Abstract

This report consists of papers presented at a Principal Investigators Meeting of the Controlled Ecological Life Support System(CELSS) program. The meeting was held at the New England Center for Continuing Education on the campus of the University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, on May 3 through 6, 1981. It is anticipated that this meeting will constitute the first of several Principal Investigators Meetings that will be held at intervals during the course of the program's development.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830021745
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Variation in elemental content of lettuce grown under base-line conditions in five controlled environments facilities

1981

W.L. Berry, D.T. Krizek, D.P. Ormrod, J.C. McFarlane, R.W. Langhans, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The results of studies carried out at 5 centres in the USA and Canada are presented. An inter-laboratory comparison was made of the variation in elemental concentration in plants of the lettuce cv. Grand Rapids grown under standardized conditions for 28 days in 5 controlled-environment facilities. Plants were grown in a sphagnum peat-vermiculite mixture obtained from a common source. Plant tissue from all studies was collected and analyzed at one laboratory for 10 essential elements (P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu, Mo) and 10 non-essential elements (Al, Si, Ti, Sr, Ba, Na, Pb, V, Li and Sn). The 10 essential elements occurred at concentrations adequate for normal lettuce growth. Data showed large differences in elemental concentration among experiments conducted by the same investigator as well as by different investigators, suggesting inadvertent contamination of the leaf samples by the rooting media or contamination of the watering system in each controlled-environment facility. These differences, however, had no observable effect on vegetative growth. Based on a nested analysis of variance, 95% of the elements showed significant plant to plant differences in concentration. However, based on an analysis of variance components, the greatest source of variation was found among investigators.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19820304716
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Development of selection criteria and their application in evaluation of CELSS candidate species

1981

J.E. Hoff, J.M. Howe, C.A. Mitchell

publication: LifeSupportSystem

Abstract

Plant species grown in a CELSS must provide a nutritionally and psychologically adequate diet for personnel as well as for controlled air revitalizaton. The ultimate selection of suitable crops will depend on species performance within the unique restrictions imposed by recycling ecosystems and on the ability of harvested plant parts to meet human needs. Two general categories of selection criteria have been identified which will be used to identify promising species upon which future research efforts should be focused: use and cultural criteria. Certain aspects included under each category are incompletely known for many species and therefore introduce elements of uncertainty into the selection process. A total of 21 criteria were considered; nine of them fall into the realm of human nutrition and convenience (the "use" criteria), and the remaining 12 are predominantly cultural considerations. Five criteria were considered to be of great importance in the selection of plant species and were given double weight relative to the remaining criteria. "Use" criteria include the following: energy concentration, nutritional composition, palatability, serving size and frequency, processing requirements, use flexibility, toxicity, and human experience. "Cultural" criteria include the following: proportion of edible biomass, yield of edible plant biomass, continuous vs. determinate harvestability, growth habit and morphology, environmental tolerance, photoperiodic and temperature requirements, symbiotic requirements and restrictions, carbon dioxide-light intensity response, suitability for soilless culture, disease resistance, familiarity with species, and pollination and propagation. A total of 115 species were evaluated and scored according to suitability for a CELSS. In terms of their anticipated function, we categorized crop species as follows: pulse crops; root and tuber crops; leaf, flower, and vegetable crops; salad crops; grain crops; fruit crop: nut crops; sugar crops; stimulant crops; and herbs and spices.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19830021745/downloads/19830021745.pdf#page=28
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Plant diversity to support humans in a CELSS ground-based demonstrator. NASA Contract Report 166357

1981

J.M. Howe, J.E. Hoff

publication: unknown

Abstract

A controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) for human habitation in preparation for future long duration space flights is considered. The success of such a system depends upon the feasibility of revitalization of food resources and the human nutritional needs which are to be met by these food resources. Edible higher plants are prime candidates for the photoautotrophic components of this system if nutritionally adequate diets can be derived from these plant sources to support humans. Human nutritional requirements information based on current knowledge are developed for inhabitants envisioned in the CELSS ground based demonstrator. Groups of plant products that can provide the nutrients are identified.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820016957
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Controlled ecologocal life support system: Research and development guidelines

1982

R.M. Mason, J.L. Carden

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Background This report summarizes the results of the workshop held January 9-12, 1979, at the NASA Ames Research Center. The workshop was held as part of an effort under Grant No. NSG-2323 from NASA Ames to the Georgia Institute of Technology. METRICS, INC., served as subcontractor to Georgia Tech in the effort. The purpose of the workshop was to provide the base for an expanded program of research and development of controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS). This purpose had two goals: to establish ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2wQZAQAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=Controlled+ecologocal+l...
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Controlled ecological life support system: Biological problems

1982

B. Moore III, R.D. MacElroy

publication: unknown

Abstract

The general processes and controls associated with two distinct experimental paradigms are examined. Specific areas for research related to biotic production (food production) and biotic decomposition (waste management) are explored. The workshop discussions were directed toward Elemental cycles and the biological factors that affect the transformations of nutrients into food, of food material into waste, and of waste into nutrients were discussed. To focus on biological issues, the discussion assumed that (1) food production would be by biological means (thus excluding chemical synthesis), (2) energy would not be a limiting factor, and (3) engineering capacity for composition and leak rate would be adequate.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820016960
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An approach to the preliminary evaluation of closed-ecological life support system (CELSS) scenarios and control strategies

1982

J.D. Stahr, D.M. Auslander, R.C. Spear, G.E. Young

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

This paper presents the results of applying the scenario analysis method on a simplified CELSS scenario. Emphasis is on the fifth step of~the method. Control strategies and survivabil ity are evaluated with a new approach to the ana 1 ys is of envirorimental systems developed by Hornberger and Spear (1980). The PCELSS stenarios and control strategies within a scenario has been illustrated in this paper.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19820022021/downloads/19820022021.pdf
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Evaluation of engineering foods for controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS) NASA Contract Rep. 166359

1982

M. Karel

publication: unknown

Abstract

The feasibility of developing acceptable and reliable engineered foods for use in controlled ecological support systems (CELSS) was evaluated. Food resupply and regeneration are calculated, flow charts of food processes in a multipurpose food pilot plant are presented, and equipment for a multipurpose food pilot plant and potential simplification of processes are discussed. Food-waste treatment and water usage in food processing and preparation are also considered.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820021130
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Fatty acid composition and nitrate uptake of soybean roots during acclimation to low temperature

1982

D.L. Osmond, R.F. Wilson, C.D. Raper Jr

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Fatty acid composition of old and new roots was determined for soybeans (Glycine max [L.] Merr. cv Ransom) at root-zone temperatures of 14, 18, and 22 degrees C during a 26-day period. New roots had a greater concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids than old roots. The ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid concentration in new roots exposed to 14 and 18 degrees C peaked at 16 days and declined, while the corresponding ratio in old roots increased throughout the treatment period. Apparently the response of fatty acid composition in old and new roots to low temperature was mediated by tissue aging or differentiation. These findings were contrary to the concept that modifications in fatty acid composition remain constant at lower temperatures.The function of root tissues exposed to lower temperature was evaluated with respect to the ability of the root systems to absorb NO(3) (-). Over the relatively long periods of exposure, the ability of whole root systems to absorb NO(3) (-) was similar at cool and warm temperatures. The effect of cool temperature on functioning of roots appeared to involve reductions in the rates of initiation and differentiation of young root tissues rather than changes in membrane permeability related to alteration of fatty acid composition.
doi: 10.1104/pp.70.6.1689 pubmed: 16662745 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/70/6/1689/6078372
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In vivo nitrate reduction in roots and shoots of barley Hordeum vulgare L. seedlings in light and darkness

1982

M. Aslam, R. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

In vivo NO(3) (-) reduction in roots and shoots of intact barley (Hordeum vulgare L. var Numar) seedlings was estimated in light and darkness. Seedlings were placed in darkness for 24 hours to make them carbohydrate-deficient. During darkness, the leaves lost 75% of their soluble carbohydrates, whereas the roots lost only 15%. Detached leaves from these plants reduced only 7% of the NO(3) (-) absorbed in darkness. By contrast, detached roots from the seedlings reduced the same proportion of absorbed NO(3) (-), as did roots from normal light-grown plants. The rate of NO(3) (-) reduction in the roots accounted for that found in the intact dark-treated carbohydrate-deficient seedlings. The rates of NO(3) (-) reduction in roots of intact plants were the same for approximately 12 hours, both in light and darkness, after which the NO(3) (-) reduction rate in roots of plants placed in darkness slowly declined. In the dark, approximately 40% of the NO(3) (-) reduction occurred in the roots, whereas in light only 20% of the total NO(3) (-) reduction occurred in roots. A lesser proportion was reduced in roots because the leaves reduced more nitrate in light than in darkness.
doi: 10.1104/pp.70.4.1009 pubmed: 16662604 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/70/4/1009/6078844
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The role of vascular aquatic plants in wastewater treatment

1982

B.C. Wolverton, R.C. McDonald

publication: unknown

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Light energy utilization efficiency for photosynthesis

1982

J.S. Sager, J.L. Edwards, W.H. Klein

publication: Transactions of the ASAE

Abstract

THE radiation output of sources used in growth cham-bers and for supplemental lighting in horticulture was measured in terms of irradiance, photon flux densi-ty, and two photosynthetic responses based on the mean relative action spectrum and mean relative quantum yield of photosynthesis. The outputs of the sources were given in terms of a constant power input and showed the necessity of comparing electrical conversion efficiences on an installed rather than 'test' basis. A rating of the sources based on the calculated photosynthetic utiliza-tion efficiencies was given for the sources tested. A source with broad spectral outputs can be evaluated with either photon flux density or photosynthetic photon flux density. However, analysis of less homogenous sources with narrow spectral emissions showed that the photon flux density was not a valid index of photosynthetic utilization efficiency. Plants, lettuce and tomato, grown under daylight, blue and red spectral quality sources showed large differences in morphology between the plants. The best indicator of photosynthetic utilization efficiency of a source was found to be either the photosynthetic action photon flux density or the photosynthetic yield photon flux density as modified by an absorptance greater than that previously given in the literature. The net assimilation rates of lettuce and tomato plants grown under a blue source would predict that the mean relative action spectrum was low in the blue region.
doi: 10.13031/2013.33799 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=33799
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Genetic engineering possibilities for CELSS: A bibliography and summary of techniques

1982

E.J. Johnson

publication: unknown

Abstract

A bibliography of the most useful techniques employed in genetic engineering of higher plants, bacteria associated with plants, and plant cell cultures is provided. A resume of state-of-the-art genetic engineering of plants and bacteria is presented. The potential application of plant bacterial genetic engineering to CELSS (Controlled Ecological Life Support System) program and future research needs are discussed.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820013002
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Controlled ecological life support system: Biological problems. NASA CP-2233

1982

B. Moore III, R.D. MacElroy

publication: unknown

Abstract

The general processes and controls associated with two distinct experimental paradigms are examined. Specific areas for research related to biotic production (food production) and biotic decomposition (waste management) are explored. The workshop discussions were directed toward Elemental cycles and the biological factors that affect the transformations of nutrients into food, of food material into waste, and of waste into nutrients were discussed. To focus on biological issues, the discussion assumed that (1) food production would be by biological means (thus excluding chemical synthesis), (2) energy would not be a limiting factor, and (3) engineering capacity for composition and leak rate would be adequate.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820016960
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Air pollutant production by algal cell cultures

1982

F. Fong, E.A. Funkhouser

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

The production of phytotoxic air pollutants by cultures of Chlorella vulgaris and Euglena gracilis is considered. Algal and plant culture systems, a fumigation system, and ethylene, ethane, cyanide, and nitrogen oxides assays are discussed. Bean, tobacco, mustard green, cantaloupe and wheat plants all showed injury when fumigated with algal gases for 4 hours. Only coleus plants showed any resistance to the gases. It is found that a closed or recycled air effluent system does not produce plant injury from algal air pollutants.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820026200
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Tipburn of lettuce

1982

G.F. Collier, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the …

Partial Abstract

), but these tipburn resistant cultivars have not been tested in controlled environments. We optimized the environment for lettuce by blowing air on the meristems to eliminate tipburn, ...
doi: 10.1002/9781118060773.ch2 link: https://www.academia.edu/download/38021171/frantz159278_2004_exploring.pdf
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Inhibitory effects of ammoniacal nitrogen on growth of radish plants. I. Characterization of toxic effects of NH4 + on growth and its alleviation by NO3

1982

S. Goyal, O.A. Lorenz, R.C. Huffaker

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Seedlings of 5 radish cvs were grown in solution culture and supplied with NH4-N or NO3-N. Growth was inhibited by NH4-N at concentrations from 1 to 240 p.p.m. N. Higher levels of free NH4 accumulated in the plants as a result of NH4 nutrition. Nitrate equivalent to 10% or more of the NH4 concentration alleviated the inhibitory effects of NH4 on growth and also reduced the NH4 content of the plants. All cvs responded similarly. Ammonium was also harmful to growth of etiolated seedlings, but NO3 did not reverse the inhibition.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19820307798
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Relative content of NO3- and reduced N in xylem exudate as an indicator of root reduction of concurrently absorbed 15NO3

1982

T.W. Rufty Jr, R.J. Volk, P.R. McClure, D.W. Israel, C.D. Raper

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

It is unclear if the relative content of NO(3) (-) and reduced N in xylem exudate provides an accurate estimate of the percentage reduction of concurrently absorbed NO(3) (-) in the root. Experiments were conducted to determine whether NO(3) (-) and reduced N in xylem exudate of vegetative, nonnodulated soybean plants (Glycine max [L.] Merr., ;Ransom') originated from exogenous recently absorbed (15)NO(3) (-) or from endogenous (14)N pools. Plants either were decapitated and exposed to (15)NO(3) (-) solutions for 2 hours or were decapitated for the final 20 minutes of a 50-minute exposure to (15)NO(3) (-) in the dark and in the light. Considerable amounts of (14)NO(3) (-) and reduced (14)N were transported into the xylem, but almost all of the (15)N was present as (15)NO(3) (-). Dissimilar changes in transport of (14)NO(3) (-), reduced (14)N and (15)NO(3) (-) during the 2 hours of sap collection resulted in large variability over time in the percentage of total N in the exudate which was reduced N. Over a 20-minute period the rate of (15)N transport into the xylem of decapitated plants was only 21 to 36% of the (15)N delivered to the shoot of intact plants. Based on the proportion of total (15)N which was found as reduced (15)N in exudate and in intact plants in the dark, it was estimated that 5 to 17% of concurrently absorbed (15)NO(3) (-) was reduced in the root. This was much less than the 38 to 59% which would have been predicted from the relative content of total NO(3) (-) and total reduced N in the xylem exudate.
doi: 10.1104/pp.69.1.166 pubmed: 16662152 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/69/1/166/6080386
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Nitrate uptake, root and shoot growth, and ion balance of soybean plants during acclimation to root-zone acidity

1982

Rufty, T.W., C.D. Raper Jr. and, W.A. Jackson.

publication: Botanical Gazette

Abstract

The effects of acidity on NO3 - absorption by nonnodulated, vegetative soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merrill) plants were examined during a 30-day growth period in flowing solution culture. The acidities of nutrient solutions were maintained at pH 6.1, 5.1, or 4.1 ± 0.1. Root growth rates were reduced for about 20 days by increasing acidity but then recovered to rates which exceeded those at low acidity so that root mass in all treatments was similar after 30 days. In contrast, the uptake rate of NO3 - per unit of root mass was enhanced by increased acidity within the first day of exposure to rates that remained constant throughout the treatment period. Total nitrate uptake and shoot growth rates were restricted at higher acidities until about day 20 and thereafter recovered to rates which exceeded those at low acidity in parallel with the recovery in root growth rates. Alterations in total NO3 - uptake in response to acidity also were evaluated in relation to changes in uptake of other ions and ionic balance in the plant tissue. As acidity increased, anion uptake was increased relative to cation uptake. Though greater reduction of NO3 -, and thus greater generation of internal OH- ions, occurred in plants at higher acidities, tissues contained smaller amounts of organic anions. Acidity of the root-zone, therefore, influenced partitioning of internal OH- generated during NO3 - reduction between synthesis of organic anions in the tissue and efflux to the external solution in association with excess anion uptake.
doi: 10.1086/337264 link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/337264
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Utilization of urea, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate by crop plants in a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS)

1982

R.C. Huffaker, D.W. Rains, C.O. Qualset

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

various nitrogen compounds by crop plants in controllel ecological life support systems. Discussed are the selection of crop varieties for efficient production =Sing urea, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate, and the assimilation of mixed nitrogen sources by cereal leaves and roots.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19830007768/downloads/19830007768.pdf
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Controlled ecological life support system. Use of higher plants

1982

TW Tibbits, DK Alford

publication: Conference Proceedings

Abstract

Results of two workshops concerning the use of higher plants in Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) are summarized. Criteria for plant selection were identified from these categories: food production, nutrition, oxygen production and carbon dioxide utilization, water recycling, waste recycling, and other morphological and physiological considerations. Types of plant species suitable for use in CELSS, growing procedures, and research priorities were recommended. Also included are productivity values for selected plant species.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820016958
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Controlled ecological life support systems: Research and development guidelines

1982

R.M. Mason, J.L. Carden

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Background This report summarizes the results of the workshop held January 9-12, 1979, at the NASA Ames Research Center. The workshop was held as part of an effort under Grant No. NSG-2323 from NASA Ames to the Georgia Institute of Technology. METRICS, INC., served as subcontractor to Georgia Tech in the effort. The purpose of the workshop was to provide the base for an expanded program of research and development of controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS). This purpose had two goals: to establish ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2wQZAQAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=Controlled+ecological+l...
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Inhibition of nitrate assimilation in roots in the presence of ammonium

1982

THOMAS W. RUFTY Jr,WILLIAM A. JACKSON,C. DAVID RAPER

publication: Journal of Experimental Botany

Abstract

Experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of concentration of NH4+ in nutrient solution on root assimilation of NO3− and to determine whether the NH4+NO3− interaction was modified in the presence of K+. Dark-grown, detopped corn seedlings (cv. Pioneer 3369A) were exposed for 8 h to 0.15 mM Ca(NO3)2 and varying concentrations of (NH4)2SO4 in the absence or presence of 0.15 mM K2SO4. The accelerated phase of NO3− uptake appeared most sensitive to restriction by additions of 0.15 mM (NH4)2SO4. In the absence of K+, the restriction increased only slightly even when solution (NH4)2SO4, was increased from 0.15 mM to 12.5 mM which was accompanied by an increase of NH4+ in the tissue from about 7.0 to 35 μmol g−1 fr. wt. of root. Increasing concentrations of solution NH4+ progressively inhibited net K+ uptake. At the highest solution NH4+ concentrations, there was an initial net efflux of K+ and no net influx occurred during the treatment period. The severity of the NH4)SO4 restriction of NO3− uptake was moderated considerably in the presence of K+ as long as a net influx of K+ occurred. However, net influx of K+ was not associated with alteration of NH4+ uptake, assimilation, or accumulation in the root tissue. The lack of correlation between the severity of restriction of NO3− uptake and endogenous NHJ suggested the restriction resulted from an effect exerted by exogenous NH4+ which tended to saturate at lower solution NHJ concentrations or by inhibitory factors generated during assimilation of NH4+. Several mechanisms were postulated to account for the moderating influence of K+. In all experiments, root NO3− reduction was restricted by the presence of ambient NH4+. The quantitative decreases in reduction tended to be less than decreases in NO3− uptake and therefore, could result from inhibition solely of uptake with subsequent limitation in availability of substrate for the reduction process, but the possibility of a direct effect on reduction could not be excluded.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/33.6.1122 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/33/6/1122/676460
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Nutritional and cultural aspects of plant species selection for a regenerative life Support system

1982

J.E. Hoff, J.M. Howe, C.A. Mitchell

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

The feasibility of using higher plants in a controlled ecological life support system is discussed. Aspects of this system considered important in the use of higher plants include: limited energy, space, and mass, and problems relating to cultivation and management of plants, food processing, the psychological impact of vegetarian diets, and plant propagation. A total of 115 higher plant species are compared based on 21 selection criteria.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820016109
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Plant growth in controlled environments in response to characteristics of nutrient solutions. NASA-CR-166431

1982

C.D. Raper

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Plant growth in controlled environments in response to characteristics of nutrient solutions is discussed. Descriptions of experimental results concerning root acclimation to temperature, root and shoot acclimation to nitrogen stress, and growth response to NH4 (+) and NO3 (-) nutrition are included. A preliminary model validation to changing temperatures is presented. ...
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19830008817/downloads/19830008817.pdf
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Factors controlling intumescence development on tomato plants

1983

A.S. Lang, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Tomato plants were maintained in a growth chamber in small Plexiglas boxes to produce intumescence (oedema) injury. Severe injury occurred when plants were exposed to air from a pressurized laboratory supply and slight injury after exposure to air drawn from outside. Injury was greater on plants with 5 litres/min of air passing through the exposure boxes than with 1 litre/min. Severe but similar types of injury were observed at 30, 80 and 92% RH in contrast with previous findings, which demonstrated that high humidity caused injury. Severe injury occurred at all irradiation levels (80, 240 and 400 mu mol/s per m2) in a 16-h light period. Exposure to toxic air from the laboratory supply lines during either the light or dark period resulted in similar amounts of injury. Continuous exposure caused greater injury. Injury developed consistently under Cool-White fluorescent lamps with a UV-B absorbing barrier between the lamps and plants but no injury occurred if the barrier was removed. UV-B irradiation of the air before it was supplied to the plant chamber did not prevent injury.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19830313768
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Stimulation of lettuce productivity by manipulation of diurnal temperature and light

1983

S.L. Knight, C.A. Mitchell

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

'Salad Bowl' and 'Waldmann's Green' leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) were exposed to photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) of 444 or 889 micromoles s-1 m-2 for 20 hours day-1 under a diurnal temperature regime of 25 degrees C days/15 degrees nights or 20 degrees days/15 degrees nights. Leaf dry weight of both cultivars was highest under the high PPFD/warm temperature regime and lowest under the low PPFD/cool temperature regime. 'Waldmann's Green' yielded more than did 'Salad Bowl' at 889 micromoles s-1 m-2 and 25 degrees days/20 degrees nights. Under high PPFD, both cultivars yielded better with 25 degrees days/25 degrees nights than with 25 degrees days/20 degrees nights, although relative growth rates were the same under both temperature regimes.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.18.4.462 pubmed: 11542283 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/18/4/article-p462.xml
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Growth and nitrogen assimilation of soybeans in response to ammonium and nitrate nutrition

1983

T.W. Rufty Jr, C.D. Raper Jr. and, W.A. Jackson.

publication: Botanical Gazette

Abstract

Plants supplied with moderate concentrations of NH4 + in solution generally grow poorly compared with plants supplied with other sources of nitrogen. Experiments were conducted with a flowing solution culture system to determine whether growth restrictions could be avoided over an extended period in the presence of NH4 + if root-zone pH were strictly controlled and if plants were exposed to NH4 + during exponential growth when carbohydrate fluxes to the root are coordinated with the rate of nitrogen acquisition. Vegetative soybeans (Glycine max [L.] Merrill) initially were exposed to complete nutrient solutions containing NO3 - until the exponential growth stage and then were exposed for 4 wk to solutions in which nitrogen was supplied as either 1.0 mM NH4 +, 1 0 mM NO3 -, or 0.5 mM NH4 + plus 0.5 mM NO3 -. Acidity of the solutions was constantly maintained at pH 5 8 ± 0 1 by automated control In separate experiments, irradiance (photosynthetic photon flux density [PPFD] of 700 and 325 μE m-2 s-1) levels were controlled to produce distinct steady-state rates of leaf, root, and whole-plant growth The source of nitrogen did not alter growth or nitrogen accumulation within either environment Growth of whole plants and plant parts and accumulation of nitrogen remained exponential The results support the conclusion that plants can effectively utilize NH4 + as a nitrogen source as long as root-zone pH is strictly controlled and a balance is maintained between carbohydrate availability and acquisition of NH4 +
doi: 10.1086/337398 link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/337398
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Enhancement of lettuce yield by manipulation of light and nitrogen nutrition

1983

S.L. Knight, C.A. Mitchell

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Several levels of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) were tested for effects on growth of 4 cultivars of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) under controlled-environment conditions. Growth of 'Salad Bowl', 'Bibb', and 'Ruby' was greater at 932 micromoles s-1 m-2 than at < or = 644 micromoles s-1 m-2 under a 16-hour photoperiod. Thirty mM NO3- or 5 mM NH4+ + 25 mM NO3- increased leaf dry weight while reducing leaf chlorosis in 'Salad Bowl' and 'Grand Rapids' relative to that with 15 mM NO3-, and reduced leaf purpling in 'Bibb' and 'Ruby' with little or no effect on yield. Continuous illumination with 455 or 918 micromoles s-1 m-2 stimulated yield of 'Salad Bowl' and 'Bibb' when 30 mM N as NH4+ + NO3- was used relative to that with 15 mM NO3-.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.108.5.750 pubmed: 11542284 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/108/5/article-p750.xml
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Growth of lettuce, spinach, mustard, and wheat plants under four combinations of high-pressure sodium, metal halide, and tungsten halogen lamps at equal PPFD

1983

T.W. Tibbitts, D.C. Morgan, I.J. Warrington

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Plants of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Grand Rapids), spinach (Spinacia oleracea cv. Bouquet), white mustard (Sinapis alba L.), and wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Karamu) were grown at 2 photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD 400 to 700 nm at 320 and 700 micro mol s^-1 m² under 4 lamp treatments: metal halide lamps alone, high-pressure sodium lamps alone, metal halide plus tungsten halogen lamps (ca. 1:1 installed wattage), and metal halide plus high-pressure sodium lamps (ca. 1:1 installed wattage). Plants of all species grew well under all treatments and no growth abnormalities were apparent at harvest. It is concluded that dry-weight increase was determined by PPFD and not by spectral irradiance. However, lettuce, spinach, and mustard hypocotyl elongation was greater in young plants grown under the high-pressure sodium lamps in comparison with those grown under the metal halide or metal halide plus tungsten halogen treatments. A strong negative relationship between hypocotyl length and blue photon flux density (400-495 nm) was demonstrated. Anthesis of wheat occurred at the same time under all lamp treatments, but anthesis of mustard differed by 2 days at the higher PPFD and 4 days at the lower PPFD among lamp treatments. The time of anthesis for mustard was found to be weakly but positively correlated with the calculated phytochrome photoequilibrium. Chlorophyll concentrations in young lettuce and spinach plants growing under the high-pressure sodium lamps were 55% and 26% lower, respectively, than those in plants growing under metal halide lamps at the high PPFD level. However, final dry weight was unaffected by any of these morphological differences in the early growth stages.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.108.4.622 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/108/4/article-p622.xml
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Morphology and anatomy of intumescence development on tomato plants

1983

A.S. Lang, B.E. Struckmeyer, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Plants of Lycopersicon esculentum Mill cv. Oxheart, the cultivated tomato, and L. hirsutum Humb. & Bonpl. PI LA 1625, a wild tomato, were placed in small Plexiglas boxes in a growth chamber and exposed to air from a pressurized laboratory supply line to induce intumescence injury. External symptoms of injury on the 2 species were different, but anatomical responses were similar. Injury on L, hirsutum consisted primarily of gall-like protrusions 1-2 mm in diameter on leaves, whereas symptoms on L. esculentum consisted primarily of callus-like tissue on petioles, midribs, and stems. Some injury of each type was found on both species. When severely injured, leaves wilted and abscised on L. esculentum, but not on L. hirsutum. Where injury occurred, the epidermis and underlying 2 or 3 layers of cells hypertrophied and produced intumescences. Vascular tissue of L. esculentum exhibited tyloses which occluded xylem vessels, apparently blocking water transport and causing wilting and abscission of leaves.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.108.2.266 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/108/2/article-p266.xml
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Photoperiod and temperature regulation of floral initiation and anthesis in soya bean

1983

JUDITH F. THOMAS,C. D. RAPER

publication: Annals of Botany

Abstract

Floral development includes initiation of floral primordia and subsequent anthesis as discrete events, even though in many investigations only anthesis is considered. For ‘Ransom’ soya bean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] grown at day/night temperatures of 18/14, 22/18, 26/22, 30/26, and 34/30 °C and exposed to photoperiods of 10, 12, 14, 15, and 16 h, time of anthesis ranged from less than 21 days after exposure at the shorter photoperiods and warmer temperatures to more than 60 days at longer photoperiods and cooler temperatures. For all temperature regimes, however, floral primordia were initiated under shorter photopenods within 3 to 5 days after exposure and after not more than 7 to 10 days exposure to longer photoperiods. Once initiation had begun, time required for differentiation of individual floral primordia and the duration of leaf initiation at shoot apices increased with increasing length of photoperiod. While production of nodes ceased abruptly under photoperiods of 10 and 12 h, new nodes continued to be formed concurrently with initiation of axillary floral primordia under photoperiods of 14, 15 and 16 h. The vegetative condition at the main stem shoot apex was prolonged under the three longer photoperiods and is suggestive of the existence of an intermediate apex under these conditions. The results indicate that initiation and anthesis are controlled independently rather than collectively by photoperiod, and that floral initiation consists of two independent steps—one for the first-initiated flower in an axil of a main stem leaf and a second for transformation of the terminal shoot apex from the vegetative to reproductive condition.
doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a086493 link: https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-abstract/51/4/481/82438
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Microorganisms and plants for waste water treatment

1983

B.C. Wolverton, R.C. McDonald, W.R. Duffer

publication: Journal of Environmental Quality

Abstract

Batch experiments were conducted to compare the waste water treatment efficiencies of plant-free microbial filters with filters supporting the growth of reeds (Phragmites communis), cattail (Typha latifolia), rush (Juncus effusus), and bamboo (Bambusa multiplex). The experimental systems consisted of two components in series. The first component was an anaerobic settling-digestion container. The second was a “nonaerated” trough filled with rocks, decreasing from large rocks (up to 7.5-cm diam) at the bottom, to pea gravel (0.25- to 1.3-cm diam) at the top. The plant-free microbial filter was equally effective in carbonaceous BOD5 (5-d biochemical O2 demand) removal. The vascular aquatic plant series enhanced ammonia removal, and consequently improved nitrogenous BOD5 removal. Under the conditions of these experiments, raw sewage with initial BOD5's of 100 mg/L can be upgraded to meet secondary standards with 6 h in component 1, and 6 h in a plant-free filter or filter using cattail, rush, or reed. When initial BOD5's are approximately 450 mg/L, 24 h in component 1, 29 h in a reed filter are required to meet secondary standards. Total N removal studies were conducted, which demonstrated that a reed system is capable of removing NO3-N and NH3-N simultaneously, probably through a common NO2-N intermediary, then to N2. Overall, the reed system was superior to all others evaluated in this research project.
doi: 10.2134/jeq1983.00472425001200020018x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq1983.00472425001200020018x
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Photoperiod effect on soybean growth during the onset of reproductive development under various temperature regimes

1983

Judith F. Thomas,C. David Raper Jr

publication: Botanical Gazette

Abstract

The vegetative growth of soybeans was examined after 21 days of exposure to photoperiods of 10, 12, 14, 15, and 16 h following expansion of the first trifoliolate leaf of plants grown under day/night temperature regimes of 18/14, 22/18, 26/22, 30/26, and 34/30 C Photoperiods consisted of a common 9-h period of radiation from fluorescent plus incandescent lamps that provided photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 700 ± 30 μmol s-1 m-2. This common 9-h period coincided with the day temperature and was preceded and followed by 0 5, 1.5, 2 5, 3.0, or 3 5 h of radiation from the incandescent lamps alone, which provided 9-12 W m-2 of photomorphogenic radiation between wave-lengths of 700 and 850 nm and PPFD of 69 μmol s-1 m-2 Of all the growth parameters measured, only total branch length and total number of nodes were significantly different among photoperiod treatments and across all temperature regimes. Dry weights of neither leaf, stem, nor root portions varied significantly with photoperiod after 21 days of treatment. The apical dominance ratio tended to increase either as photoperiod was lengthened or as temperature was increased. Results indicate that photomorphogenetically induced changes in leaf number and leaf area may enhance overall reproductive efficiency of soybeans under long-day photomorphogenic photoperiods by increasing flowers per node.
doi: 10.1086/337399 link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/337399
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Current concepts and future directions of CELSS.

1984

R.D. MacElroy, J. Bredt

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Studies of bioregenerative life support systems for use in space indicate that they are scientifically feasible. Preliminary data suggest that they would provide cost- and weight-saving benefits for low Earth orbit, long duration space platforms. Concepts of such systems include the use of higher plants and/or micro-algae as sources of food, potable water and oxygen, and as sinks for carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Recycling of materials within the system will require processing of food organism and crew wastes using microbiological and/or physical chemical techniques. The dynamics of material flow within the system will require monitoring, control, stabilization and maintenance imposed by computers. Future phases of study will continue investigations of higher plant and algal physiology, environmental responses, and control; flight experiments for testing responses of organisms to weightlessness and increased radiation levels; and development of ground-based facilities for the study of recycling within a bioregerative life support system.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(84)90566-0 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117784905660
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Tomato growth as affected by root-zone temperature and the addition of gibberellic acid and kinetin to nutrient solution

1984

G. Bugbee, J.W. White

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The effect of root-zone temperature on young tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Heinz 1350) was evaluated in controlled environments using a recirculating solution culture system. Growth rates were measured at root-zone temperatures of 15 degrees, 20 degrees, 25 degrees, and 30 degrees C in a near optimum foliar environment. Optimum growth occurred at 25 degrees to 30 degrees during the first 4 weeks of growth and 20 degrees to 25 degrees during the 5th and 6th weeks. Growth was severely restricted at 15 degrees. Four concentrations of gibberellic acid (GA3) and kinetin were added to the nutrient solution in a separate trial; root-zone temperature was maintained at 15 degrees and 25 degrees. Addition of 15 micromoles GA3 to solutions increased specific leaf area, total leaf area, and dry weight production of plants in both temperature treatments. GA3-induced growth stimulation was greater at 15 degrees than at 25 degrees. GA3 may promote growth by increasing leaf area, enhancing photosynthesis per unit leaf area, or both. Kinetic was not useful in promoting growth at either temperature.
pubmed: 11539775 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539775
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Current concepts and future directions of CELSS

1984

R.D. MacElroy,J. Bredt

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Studies of bioregenerative life support systems for use in space indicate that they are scientifically feasible. Preliminary data suggest that they would provide cost- and weight-saving benefits for low Earth orbit, long duration space platforms. Concepts of such systems include the use of higher plants and/or micro-algae as sources of food, potable water and oxygen, and as sinks for carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Recycling of materials within the system will require processing of food organism and crew wastes using microbiological and/or physical chemical techniques. The dynamics of material flow within the system will require monitoring, control, stabilization and maintenance imposed by computers. Future phases of study will continue investigations of higher plant and algal physiology, environmental responses, and control; flight experiments for testing responses of organisms to weightlessness and increased radiation levels; and development of ground-based facilities for the study of recycling within a bioregerative life support system.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(84)90566-0 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117784905660
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Inheritance of nitrite reductase and regulation of nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, and glutamine synthetase isozymes

1984

S Heath-Pagliuso,R C Huffaker,R W Allard

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Banding patterns of nitrate reductase (NR), nitrite reductase (NiR), and glutamine synthetase (GS) from leaves of diploid barley (Hordeum vulgare), tetraploid wheat (Triticum durum), hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum), and tetraploid wild oats (Avena barbata) were compared following starch gel electrophoresis. Two NR isozymes, which appeared to be under different regulatory control, were observed in each of the three species. The activity of the more slowly migrating nitrate reductase isozyme (NR1) was induced by NO3- in green seedlings and cycloheximide inhibited induction. However, the activity of the faster NR isozyme (NR2) was unaffected by addition of KNO3, and it was not affected by treatments of cycloheximide or chloramphenicol. Only a single isozyme of nitrite reductase was detected in surveys of three tetraploid and 18 hexaploid wheat, and 48 barley accessions; however, three isozymes associated with different ecotypes were detected in the wild oats. Inheritance patterns showed that two of the wild oat isozymes were governed by a single Mendelian locus with two codominant alleles; however, no variation was detected for the third isozyme. Treatment of excised barely and wild oat seedlings with cycloheximide and chloramphenicol showed that induction of NiR activity was greatly inhibited by cycloheximide, but only slightly by chloramphenicol. Only a single GS isozyme was detected in extracts of green leaves of wheat, barley, and wild oat seedlings. No electrophoretic variation was observed within or among any of these three species. Thus, this enzyme appears to be the most structurally conserved of the three enzymes.
doi: 10.1104/pp.76.2.353 pubmed: 11541965 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/76/2/353/6084406
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Algal bioregenerative systems for space life support

1984

C.H. Ward, R.L. Miller

publication: unknown

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Alterations in internal partitioning of carbon in soybean plants in response to nitrogen stress

1984

Thomas W. Rufty Jr,C. David Raper Jr,Steven C. Huber

publication: Canadian journal of Botany

Abstract

Alterations in internal partitioning of carbon were evaluated in plants exposed to limited nitrogen supply. Vegetative, nonnodulated soybean plants (Glycine max (L.) Merrill, ‘Ransom’) were grown for 21 days with 1.0 mM and then exposed to solutions containing 1.0, 0.1, or 0.0 mM for a 25-day treatment period. In nitrogen-limited plants, there were decreases in emergence of new leaves and in the expansion rate and final area at full expansion of individual leaves. As indicated by alterations in accumulation of dry weight, a larger proportion of available carbon in the plant was partitioned to the roots with decreased availability of nitrogen. Partitioning of reduced nitrogen to the root also was increased and, in plants devoid of an external nitrogen supply, considerable redistribution of reduced nitrogen from leaves to the root occurred. The general decrease in growth potential and sink strength for nutrients in leaves of nitrogen-limited plants suggested that factors other than simply availability of nitrogen likely were involved in the restriction of growth in the leaf canopy and the associated increase in carbon allocation to the roots.
doi: 10.1139/b84-074 link: https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/b84-074
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Preface

1984

R.D. MacElroy, H.P. Klein

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Problems associated with the use of algae in bioregenerative life support systems

1984

M. Averner, M. Karel, R. Radmer

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

A workshop was conducted to identify the potential problems associated with the use of microalgae in biorregenerative life support systems, and to identify algae rlated research issues that must be addressed through space flight experimentation. Major questions to be resolved relate to the choice of algal species for inclusion in a bioregenerative life support system, their long term behavior in the space environment, and the nature of the techniques required for the continuous growth of algae on the scale required. Consideration was given to the problems associated with the conversion of algal biomass into edible components. Specific concerns were addressed and alternative transformation processes identified and compared. The workshop identified the following major areas to be addressed by space flight experimentation: (1) long term culture stability, (2) optimal design of algal growth reactors, and (3) post growth harvesting and processing in the space environment.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19850008160
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Photoperiod regulation of floral initiation of soybean plants at different ages

1984

Judith F. Thomas,Davis C. Raper Jr

publication: Crop science

Abstract

Soybean plants [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] of the determinate cultivar Ransom growing in controlled environments under 16-h photoperiods were exposed to 10, 12, 14, 15, and 16-h photoperiods upon expansion of either the two primaries or fifth trifoliolate leaf (V1 and V6 developmental stages, respectively) to determine the influence of plant size on sensitivity to photoperiod. Plants were sampled at 2 to 3-day intervals over a 21-day treatment period and examined microscopically for evidence of floral development. Time of floral initiation for plants exposed to photoperiod treatments at either V1 or V6 stage varied only by a few days among photoperiods, but the subsequent differentiation of floral primordia was much more rapid at shorter than at longer photoperiods. These results confirm previous observations for plants transferred upon expansion of the first trifoliolate leaf (V2 stage) and indicate that sensitivity of floral responsiveness to photoperiod changed little with plant size.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1984.0011183x002400030042x pubmed: 11540897 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1984.0011183X002400030042x
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Photosynthetic productivity and vibration/acceleration stress considerations for higher plants in bioregenerative systems

1984

C.A. Mitchell, S.L. Knight, T. Pappas

publication: The Physiologist

Abstract

NASA: The food production group of the NASA Closed Ecology Life Support Systems (CELSS) program is conducting research to optimize production of candidate species from each of the major categories of food crop. Studies are underway with soybean, wheat and potato, and leaf lettuce. Our laboratory emphasizes the controlled environment production of leaf lettuce. Our objective is to obtain the greatest possible production of edible lettuce biomass in the smallest possible growing space in the shortest possible time. It is obvious
pubmed: 11539009 link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11539009/
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Atmosphere behavior in gas-closed mouse-algal systems: An experimental and modeling study

1984

Maurice M. Averner,Berrien Moore III,Irene Bartholomew,Robert Wharton

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Concepts of biologically-based regenerative life support systems anticipate the use of photosynthetic organisms for air revitalization. However, mismatches in the rates of production and uptake of oxygen or carbon dioxide between the crew and the plants will lead to an accumulation or depletion of these gases beyond tolerable limits. One method for correcting these atmospheric changes is to use physicochemical devices. This would conflict with the constraint of minimal size and weight imposed upon the successful development of a competitive bioregenerative system. An alternate control strategy is based upon reducing the gas exchange mismatch by manipulation of those environmental parameters known to affect plant or algae gas exchange ratios. We have initiated a research program using a dual approach of mathematical modelling and laboratory experimentation aimed at examining the gas exchange characteristics of artificial animal/plant systems closed to the ambient atmosphere. Our goal is to develop control techniques and management strategies for maintaining the atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen at physiological levels. A mathematical model simulating the atmospheric behavior in these systems has been developed and an experimental gas-closed system has been constructed. These will be described and preliminary results will be presented.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(84)90567-2 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117784905672
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Foliage plants for removing indoor air pollutants from energy-efficient homes

1984

B. C. Wolverton,Rebecca C. Mcdonald,E. A. Watkins

publication: Economic Botany

Abstract

A sealed, Plexiglas chamber with temperature and humidity control and illuminated externally with wide spectrum grow lights was used to evaluate the ability of golden pothos (Scindapsus aureus), nephthytis (Syngonium podophyllum), and spider plant (Chlorophytum elatum var.vittatum) to effect the removal of formaldehyde from contaminated air at initial concentrations of 15–37 ppm. Under the conditions of this study, the spider plant proved most efficient by sorbing and/ or effecting the removal of up to 2.27 fig formaldehyde per cm2 leaf surface area in 6 h of exposure. The immediate application of this new botanical air-purification system should be in energy-efficient homes that have a high risk of this organic concentrating in the air, due to outgassing of urea-formaldehyde foam insulation, particleboard, fabrics and various other synthetic materials.
doi: 10.1007/BF02858837 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf02858837
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Algal culture studies related to a closed ecological life support system (CELSS)

1984

R. Radmer, O. Ollinger, A. Venables, E. Fernadez

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

In many respects, algae would be the ideal plant component for a biologically based controlled life support system, since they are eminently suited to the closely coupled functions of atmosphere regeneration and food production. Scenedesmus obliquus and Spirulina platensis were grown in three continuous culture apparatuses. Culture vessels their operation and relative merits are described. Both light and nitrogen utilization efficiency are examined. Long term culture issues are detailed and a discussion of a plasmid search in Spirulina is included.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19850008161
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Achieving maximum plant yield in a weightless, bioregenerative system for space craft

1984

F.B. Salisbury

publication: The Physiologist

Abstract

Limitations to maximum plant yield are photosynthesis, respiration, and harvest index (edible/total biomass). Our best results with wheat equal 97.5 g total biomass m-2 day-1. Theoretical maximums for our continuous 900 micromoles photons m-2 s-1 = 175 g carbohydrate, so our life-cycle efficiency is about 56%. Mineral nutrition has posed problems, but these are now nearly solved. CO2 levels are about 80 micromoles m-3 (1700 ppm; ambient = 330 ppm). We have grown wheat plants successfully under low-pressure sodium lamps. The main factor promising increased yields is canopy development. About half the life cycle is required to develop a canopy that uses light efficiently. At that point, we achieve 89% of maximum theoretical growth, suggesting that most parameters are nearly optimal. The next important frontier concerns application of these techniques to the microgravity environment of a space craft. There are engineering problems connected with circulation of nutrient solutions, for example. Plant responses to microgravity could decrease or increase yields. Leaves become epinastic, grass nodes elongate, and roots grow out of their medium. We are proposing space experiments to study these problems.
pubmed: 11539010 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539010
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A hydroponic method for plant growth in microgravity

1984

B.D. Wright

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

A hydroponic apparatus under development for long-term microgravity plant growth is described. The capillary effect root environment system (CERES) is designed to keep separate the nutrient and air flows, although both must be simultaneously available to the roots. Water at a pressure slightly under air pressure is allowed to seep into a plastic depression covered by a plastic screen and a porous membrane. A root in the air on the membrane outer surface draws the moisture through it. The laboratory model has a wire-based 1.241 mm mesh polyethylene screen and a filter membrane with 0.45 micron pores, small enough to prohibit root hair penetration. The design eliminates the need to seal-off the plant environment. Problems still needing attention include scaling up of the CERES size, controlling biofouling of the membrane, and extending the applications to plants without fibrous root systems.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19850037409
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Growth and Lignification in Seedlings Exposed to Eight Days of Microgravity

1984

Cowles JR, Scheld HW, Lemay R, Peterson C

publication: Annals of Botany

Abstract

Four-day-old pine seedlings and mung bean and oat seeds were prepared for flight on the third Space Transport System Mission (STS-3). The seedlings and seeds were planted in six mini-growth chambers (two chambers per species) which were placed in a plant growth unit (PGU). Another set of seedlings and seeds was prepared and placed in another PGU as the 1 g control. The flight PGU was positioned in the orbiter mid-deck locker area about 11 h prior to launch. The pine seedlings and germinating mung bean and oat seeds were exposed to 194 h of microgravity. The PGU was received at a temporary laboratory about 75 min post-landing. Plants were observed, photographed and the atmospheric gases analyzed at the landing site. The plants were then brought to our Houston laboratory where they were measured and analyzed for lignin and protein content and for phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and peroxidase activities. Flight seedlings were shorter than the controls in all three species. Twenty-five to 40 per cent of the mung bean and oat roots were growing upward, and the mung beans showed signs of disorientation. Flight mung beans showed a significant reduction in lignin content in comparison to the controls, and PAL and peroxidase activities were reduced in flight pine seedlings. The results generally support the postulate that lignin synthesis is reduced in near-weightlessness and show other interesting findings.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42770226
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Effects of relative humidity and root temperature on calcium concentration and tipburn development in lettuce

1984

G.F. Collier, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Growth chamber studies were undertaken with a tipburn-sensitive cultivar of romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Lobjoits Green Cos) grown under a photosynthetic photon flux density of 320 micromoles s-1 m-2 for 16 hours; light and dark temperatures were 26.0 degrees and 12.5 degrees C, respectively. As the relative humidity (RH) during the light period was decreased from 74% to 51%, growth was retarded, Ca concentration increased, and the onset of tipburn delayed. Decreasing RH during the dark period from 95% to 90% reduced growth and resulted in lower Ca concentrations and earlier tipburn development. Further decreases from 90% to 65% caused no additional change in growth or tipburn response. Root temperatures of 23.5 degrees, compared with 15.0 degrees, slightly increased Ca concentration but induced earlier tipburn development. Ca concentrations were increased and tipburn delayed by humidity conditions which provided large diurnal fluctuations in water potential in the plant and which encouraged root pressure flow during the dark period. Elevated root temperatures did not provide expected increases in Ca accumulation in young leaves.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.109.2.128 pubmed: 11540812 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/109/2/article-p128.xml
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Photoperiod effects on growth rate of in vitro cultured soybean embryos

1984

C. David Raper Jr,Robert P. Patterson,Mary L. List,Ralph L. Obendorf,Robert J. Downs

publication: Botanical Gazette

Abstract

The growth rate of excised soybean (Glycine max [L] Merrill) embryos grown in liquid culture increased linearly as photoperiod was increased from 0 to 20 h at an irradiance of 9 W m-2 measured between wave-lengths of 700-850 nm from clear incandescent lamps. When irradiance levels were varied between 0.1 and 17 W m-2, the maximum growth rates of embryos occurred at ca 0 5 W m-2 at both 10- and 16-h photoperiods. When the light source was changed from clear incandescent lamps, with a red (600-700 nm) to far-red (700-770 nm) ratio of ca 1.07, to a BCJ incandescent lamp (Corning Glass dark red, transparent envelope and a red to far-red ratio of ca. 0 19), the growth rate of embryos slowed. These results are consistent with a high irradiance response for growth of soybean embryos.
doi: 10.1086/337441 link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/337441
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Controlled Ecological Life Support System: Higher Plant Flight Experiments

1984

T.W. Tibbitts, R.M. Wheeler

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Requirements for spaceflight experments which involve higher plants were determined. The plants are studied for use in controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS). Two categories of research requirements are discussed: (1) the physical needs which include nutrient, water and gas exchange requirements; (2) the biological and physiological functions which affect plants in zero gravity environments. Physical problems studies are given the priority since they affect all biological experiments.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19850008162
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Advanced regenerative environmental control and life support systems: Air and water regeneration

1984

F.H. Schubert,R.A. Wynveen,P.D. Quattrone

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Extended manned space missions will require regenerative life support techniques. Past U.S. manned missions used nonregenerative expendables, except for a molecular sieve-based carbon dioxide removal system aboard Skylab. The resupply penalties associated with expendables becomes prohibitive as crew size and mission duration increase. The U.S. Space Station, scheduled to be operational in the 1990's, is based on a crew of four to sixteen and a resupply period of 90 days or greater. It will be the first major spacecraft to employ regenerable techniques for life support. The paper uses the requirements for the Space Station to address these techniques.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(84)90572-6 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117784905726
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Algal culture studies related to a closed ecological life support system

1984

R. Radmer, P. Behrens, E. Fernandez, O. Ollinger, C. Howell

publication: The Physiologist

Abstract

Long-term cultures of Scenedesmus obliquus were maintained in an annular air-lift column operated as a turbidostat. We observed a linear relationship between the dry weight of the cultured cells, their cell number, and their chlorophyll content over a broad range of cell density at constant illumination. Thus, the cells did not appear to be adapting to differences in growth rate or light intensity during these experiments. Productivity vs dry wt rose linearly until the cell density reached a level at which light became limiting; at this point approximately 89% of the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was being absorbed. The maximum dilution rate of the system corresponded to a doubling time of 13.8 hr, about half the maximum growth rate generally observed at this temperature. Productivity at the maximum was approximately 80% of the maximum theoretical productivity. The rather low incident intensities (approximately 10% of full sunlight) were a main contributing factor to the high light utilization efficiencies obtained in this system, since the cells were never driven into light saturation. In many respects, algae would be ideal plant components for a biologically-based closed life support system, since they are eminently suited to the closely coupled functions of food production and atmosphere regeneration. In this communication, we report some findings on the (steady-state) continuous culture of Scenedesmus obliquus, a physiologically well-characterized green alga with good growth characteristics.
pubmed: 11539008 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539008
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Wheat farming in a lunar base

1985

F.B. Salisbury, B. Bugbee

publication: Lunar bases and space activities of …

Partial Abstract

We have studied wheat in the context the spacecraft or lunar base-until manufacturing capabilities at the lunar base had of the lunar base) to establish a wheat farm on the Moon. There are serious problems ...
link: https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/record/conf/lbsa./1985/1985lbsa.conf..635S.html
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Controlled-environment agriculture – Past, present, and future

1985

N. Davis

publication: unknown

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The minitron system for growth of small plants under controlled environment conditions

1985

C.P. Akers, S.W. Akers, C.A. Mitchell

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The design and operation of a system is described in which small plants can be grown under controlled environment conditions. Important features of this "Minitron" system include precise control of temperature and CO2 concentration in a flowing atmosphere. Plants can be grown either hydroponically or in solid root support medium. For either culture method, nutrient solution or water is added from an external reservoir, altering neither atmospheric composition nor temperature equilibrium within a closed Minitron chamber.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.110.3.353 pubmed: 11540844 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/110/3/article-p353.xml
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Elimination of toxicity from polyurethane foam plugs used for plant culture

1985

R.M. Wheeler, S.H. Schwartzkopf, T.W. Tibbitts, R.W. Langhans

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Polyurethane foam plugs commonly are used as collars or supports to grow plants in solution culture. Despite their utility, these foam plugs can be quite toxic to plants, particularly to small seedlings. We have observed tissue injury in tests using plugs to support lettuce, red beet, and potato plants in solution culture. Typically, the injury is initiated on the hypocotyl or stem tissue in direct contact with the foam, and appears within 30 hr as a brownish discoloration on the tissue surface. This discoloration can be followed by complete collapse of affected tissue and eventual death of the seedling. When injury does not progress beyond surface browning, the seedling survives but growth is slowed. In this paper, we report on different treatments that can be used to remove the toxicity of these plugs so they can be used in plant research.
pubmed: 11539821 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539821
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Photoautotrophic bioreactor using visible solar light condensed by Fresnel lenses and transmitted through optical fibers

1985

K. Mori

publication: Biotechnol. Bioeng. Symp.

Partial Abstract

Photoautotrophic bioreactor using visible solar rays condensed by Fresnel lenses and transmitted through optical fibers. | CiNii Research Photoautotrophic bioreactor using visible solar rays condensed by Fresnel lenses and transmitted through optical fibers. ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1570291226705890560
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Description of concept and first feasibility test results of a life support subsystem of the BOTANY FACLITY based on water reclamation

1985

H.R. Löser

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The BOTANY FACILITY allows the growth of higher plants and fungi over a period of 6 months maximum. It is a payload planned for the second flight of the EURECA platform around 1990.
Major tasks of the Life Support Subsystem (LSS) of the BOTANY FACILITY include the control of the pressure and composition of the atmosphere within the plant/fungi growth chambers, control of the temperature and humidity of the air and the regulation of the soil water content within specified limits.
Previous studies have shown that various LSS concepts are feasible ranging from heavy, simple and cheap to light, complex and expensive solutions. In the first part of the paper a summary of those concepts is given. In the second part a new approach to accomplish control of the temperature and humidity of the air within the growth chambers is described which is based on water reclamation. This reclamation is achieved by condensation with a heat pump and capillary transport of the condensate back into the soil of the individual growth chamber.
Part three provides some analytical estimates in order to obtain guidelines for circulation flow rates and to determine the specific power consumption. The design of a water reclamation module is described in part four while the test hardware is illustrated in part five. Part six describes the test set-up while in the seventh and last part of the paper the test results are summarized and discussed.

doi: 10.4271/851397 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/851397/
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Salicylhydroxamic acid potentiates germination of Waldmann’s Green’ lettuce seed

1985

Carolyn A. Brooks,Kenneth S. Yu,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

A combination of salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM) + cyanide (CN) is known to stimulate dark germination of Lactuca sativa L. seeds. Further studies were done to characterize SHAM and CN action in stimulating dark germination of lettuce seed. Germination was stimulated slightly by either SHAM or CN, whereas when SHAM and CN were combined germination was greatly enhanced. Treatment of seeds with SHAM + CN only during the first 8 hours of hydration stimulated germination as much as did treatment for 72 hours. During the first 8 hours of incubation in SHAM + CN, potentiation (i.e. domancy-breaking) of germination occurs. SHAM alone stimulated potentiation nearly to the level of SHAM + CN but inhibited subsequent radicle elongation, thereby decreasing germination when present for 72 hours. Oxygen must be present for SHAM or SHAM + CN to potentiate dark germination. The ability of SHAM and SHAM + CN to potentiate germination is influenced by O2 concentration and the timing of chemical treatment.
doi: 10.1104/pp.79.2.386 pubmed: 11540836 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/79/2/386/6081561
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CELSS experiment model and design concept of gas recycle system

1985

Keiji Nitta,Mitsuo Oguchi,Syuji Kanda

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

In order to prolong the duration of manned missions around the earth and to expand the human existing region from the earth to other planets such as a Lunar Base or a manned Mars flight mission, the CELSS becomes an essential factor of the future technology to be developed through utilization of Space Station.
The preliminary SE&I (System Engineering and Integration) efforts regarding CELSS have been carried out by the Japanese CELSS concept study group for clarifying the feasibility of hardware development for Space Station Experiments and for getting the time phased mission sets after Fy 1992. The results of these studies are breifly summarized and thereafter, the design and utilization methods of a Gas Recycle System for CELSS experiments are discussed.

link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44724044
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Reduced phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and tyrosine ammonia-lyase activities and lignin synthesis in wheat grown under low-pressure sodium lamps

1985

Daniel Guerra,Anne J. Anderson,Frank B. Salisbury

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv Fremont) grown in hydroponic culture under 24-hour continuous irradiation at 560 to 580 micromoles per square meter per second from either metalhalide (MH), high pressure sodium (HPS), or low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps reached maturity in 70 days. Grain yields were similar under all three lamps, although LPS-grown plants lodged at maturity. Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and a tyrosine ammonia lyase (TAL) with lesser activity were detected in all extracts of leaf, inflorescence, and stem. Ammonia-lyase activities increased with age of the plant, and plants grown under the LPS lamp displayed PAL and TAL activities lower than wheat cultured under MH and HPS radiation. Greenhouse solar-grown wheat had the highest PAL and TAL activities. Lignin content of LPS-grown wheat was also significantly reduced from that of plants grown under MH or HPS lamps or in the greenhouse, showing a correlation with the reduced PAL and TAL activities. Ratios of far red-absorbing phytochrome to total phytochrome were similar for all three lamps, but the data do not yet warrant a conclusion about specific wavelengths missing from the LPS lamps that might have induced PAL and TAL activities in plants under the other lamps.
doi: 10.1104/pp.78.1.126 pubmed: 11540097
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[citation] Concept study on the technology of CELSS

1985

K. Nitta, M. Yamashita

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Cyclic variations in nitrogen uptake rate in soybean plants

1985

L.C. Tolley, C.D. Raper Jr

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Uptake of NO(3) (-) by nonnodulated soybean plants (Glycine max L. Merr. cv Ransom) growing in flowing hydroponic culture at 22 and 14 degrees C root temperatures was measured daily during a 31-day growth period. Ion chromatography was used to determine removal of NO(3) (-) from solution during each 24-hour period. At both root-zone temperatures, rate of NO(3) (-) uptake per plant oscillated with a periodicity of 3 to 5 days. The rate of NO(3) (-) uptake per plant was consistently lower at 14 degrees C than 22 degrees C. The lower rate of NO(3) (-) uptake at 14 degrees C during the initial 5 to 10 days was caused by reduced uptake rates per gram root dry weight, but with time uptake rates per gram root became equal at 14 and 22 degrees C. Thereafter, the continued reduction in rate of NO(3) (-) uptake per plant at 14 degrees C was attributable to slower root growth.
doi: 10.1104/pp.78.2.320 pubmed: 16664238 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/78/2/320/6080403
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Wheat production in the controlled environments of space

1985

B. Bugbee, F.B. Salisbury

publication: Utah science

Abstract

The provision of a non-, partially or completely regenerative controlled environment life support system for space missions is discussed. The use of hydroponically grown wheat as part of a system to recycle waste and regenerate food and oxygen is suggested due to its versatility as a food source, efficiency of calorie and protein production, existing detailed crop knowledge, ease of genetic selection, ability to grow under a continuous light regime and vertical leaves giving high photosynthetic efficiency. Wheat productivity in different
pubmed: 11540895 link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19860791231
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Tomato responses to ammonium and nitrate nutrition under controlled root zone pH

1985

Mary M. Peet,C. David Raper Jr,Leslie C. Tolley,Wayne P. Robarge

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L. Mill. 'Vendor') plants were grown for 21 days in flowing solution culture with N supplied as either 1.0 mM NO3- or 1.0 mM NH4+. Acidity in the solutions was automatically maintained at pH 6.0. Accumulation and distribution of dry matter and total N and net photosynthetic rate were not affected by source of N. Thus, when rhizosphere acidity was controlled at pH 6.0 during uptake, either NO3- or NH4+ can be used efficiently by tomato. Uptake of K+ and Ca2+ were not altered by N source, but uptake of Mg2+ was reduced in NH4(+)-fed plants. This indicates that uptake of Mg2+ was regulated at least partially by ionic balance within the plant.
doi: 10.1080/01904168509363384 pubmed: 11539725 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904168509363384
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Dinitrogen fixation in soybean in response to leaf water stress and seed growth rated

1985

J.D. Cure, C.D. Raper Jr, R.P. Patterson, W.P. Robarge

publication: Crop science

Abstract

Late season declines in N2 fixation by soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] frequently are observed under field conditions but do not always occur under glasshouse and growth chamber culture where water stress is avoided and photoperiod is manipulated to alter rate of seed growth. To evaluate the effects of water stress and photoperiod during reproductive growth declines in N2-fixation, nodulated 'Ransom' soybeans dependent entirely on N2-fixation and growing under controlled environment conditions were divided into two groups at the beginning seed (R5) stage. At R5, photoperiod was utilized to experimentally alter the rate of seed growth as a sink for photosynthate and N by imposing a short-day photoperiod (SD) on half of the plants and a long-day photoperiod (LD) on the other half. Within each photoperiod treatment, half of the plants were subjected to a single episode of leaf water stress between -1.2 and -1.8 MPa at the full seed (R6) stage, and half served as nonstressed controls. Plants were sampled at 1- to 5-day intervals between R5 and full maturity (R8) stages and analyzed for N and total nonstructural carbohydrates (TNC). The rate of N accumulation from N2-fixation declined during reproductive growth for the stressed plants but not for the nonstressed plants. Thus, a water stress can actuate a late season decline in N2-fixation. When rate of seed growth was slowed under LD, N composition in leaves remained higher following water stress than when a faster rate of seed growth was promoted under SD. Dinitrogen-fixation activity and dry matter production recovered after rewatering for stressed plants under LD but not under SD. Concentration of TNC in leaflets was greater under LD for both stressed and nonstressed plants. Thus, concentration of TNC in leaflets does not appear to be as important in recovery from water stress as concentration of N.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1985.0011183x002500010015x pubmed: 11540908 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1985.0011183X002500010015x
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Internode and petiole elongation of soybean in response to photoperiod and end-of-day light quality

1985

Judith F. Thomas,C. David Raper Jr

publication: Botanical gazette (Chicago, Ill.)

Abstract

Elongation of main stem internodes and petioles of soybeans, Glycine max 'Ransom,' was examined in response to various photoperiod/temperature combinations and to end-of-day (EOD) light quality. Photoperiod treatments consisted of 10, 14, and 16 h in combination with day/night temperatures of 18/14, 22/18, 26/22, 30/26, and 34/30 C. The EOD treatments consisted of exposing plants to illumination from either incandescent (high far-red component, FR) or fluorescent (high red component, R) lamps during the final 0.5 h of a 10-h photoperiod. Internode elongation was not significantly promoted by the photoperiod treatments, and, in fact, under the two highest temperature regimes, internode elongation was suppressed under the longer photoperiods. Petiole elongation, however, was enhanced under the longer photoperiods at all temperatures. In the EOD light study, internode and petiole elongation was significantly greater on plants exposed to 0.5 h EOD from incandescent lamps than from fluorescent. Under the incandescent EOD treatment, plants increased dry matter production by 41% and exhibited greater partitioning of assimilates in stem and root portions than under fluorescent EOD.
doi: 10.1086/337554 pubmed: 11538843 link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/337554
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An evaluation of MES [2(N-morpholino)-ethanesulfonic acid] and amberlite IRC-50 as pH buffers for nutrient solution studies

1985

B. Bugbee, F.B. Salisbury

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

All buffering agents used to stabilize pH in hydroponic research have disadvantages. Inorganic buffers are absorbed and may become phytotoxic. Solid carbonate salts temporarily mitigate decreasing pH but provide almost no protection against increasing pH, and they alter nutrient absorption. Exchange resins are more effective, but we find that they remove magnesium and manganese from solution. We have tested 2(N-Morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES) as a buffering agent at concentrations of 1 and 10 mol m-3 (1 and 10 mM) with beans, corn, lettuce, tomatoes, and wheat. MES appears to be biologically inert and does not interact significantly with other solution ions. Relative growth rates among controls and MES treatments were nearly identical for each species during the trial period. The pH was stabilized by 1 mol m-3 MES. This buffer warrants further consideration in nutrient research.
doi: 10.1080/01904168509363369 pubmed: 11539688 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904168509363369
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Potential for the utilization of algal biomass for components of the diet in CELSS

1985

A. R. Kamarei,Z. Nakhost,M. Karel

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

The major nutritional components of the green algae (Scenedesmus obliquus) grown in a Constant Cell Density Apparatus were determined. Suitable methodology to prepare proteins from which three major undesirable components of these cells (ie, cell walls, nucleic acids, and pigments) were either removed or substantially reduced was developed. Results showed that processing of green algae to protein isolate enhances its potential nutritional and organoleptic acceptability as a diet component in Controlled Ecological Life Support System.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44724043
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A nondestructive method for continuously monitoring plant growth

1985

S.H. Schwartzkopf

pubmed: 11539820
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Controlled Ecological Life Support System. Life Support Systems in Space Travel

1985

R.D. MacElroy, D.T. Smernoff, H. Klein

publication: Meeting: COSPAR Meeting

Abstract

Life support systems in space travel, in closed ecological systems were studied. Topics discussed include: (1) problems of life support and the fundamental concepts of bioregeneration; (2) technology associated with physical/chemical regenerative life support; (3) projection of the break even points for various life support techniques; (4) problems of controlling a bioregenerative life support system; (5) data on the operation of an experimental algal/mouse life support system; (6) industrial concepts of bioregenerative life support; and (7) Japanese concepts of bioregenerative life support and associated biological experiments to be conducted in the space station.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19850021219
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Atmosphere stabilization and element recycle in an experimental mouse-algal system. NASA Contract Report 177402

1986

D.T. Smernoff

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Life support systems based on bioregeneration rely on the control and manipulation of organisms. Experiments conducted with a gas-closed mouse-algal system designed to investigate principles of photosynthetic gas exchange focus primarily on observing gas exchange phenomena under varying algal environmental conditions and secondarily on studying element cycling through compartments of the experimental system. Inherent instabilities exit between the uptake and release of carbon dioxide CO2 and oxygen O2 by the mouse and algae. Variations in light intensity and cell density alter the photosynthetic rate of the algae and enable maintenance of physiologic concentrations of CO2 and O2. Different nitrogen sources (urea and nitrate) result in different algal assimilatory quotients (AQ). Combinations of photosynthetic rate and AQ ratio manipulations have been examined for their potential in stabilizing atmospheric gas concentrations in the gas-closed algal-mouse system. Elemental mass balances through the experimental systems compartments are being studied with the concurrent development of a mathematical simulation model. Element cycling experiments include quantification of elemental flows through system compartments and wet oxidation of system waste materials for use as an algal nutrient source. Oxidized waste products demonstrate inhibitory properties although dilution has been shown to allow normal growth.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19870012971
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Electochemical control of pH in a hydroponic nutrient solution

1986

S.H. Schwartzkopf

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

The electrochemical pH control system described was found to provide a feasible alternative method of controlling nutrient solution pH for CELSS applications. The plants grown in nutrient solution in which the pH was controlled electrochemically showed no adverse effects. Further research into the design of a larger capacity electrode bridge for better control is indicated by the results of this experiment, and is currently under way.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010447
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Plant growth chamber ‘M’ design

1986

R.P. Prince, W.M. Knott

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Crop production is just one of the many processes involved in establishing long term survival of man in space. The benefits of integrating higher plants into the overall plan was recognized early by NASA through the Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) program. The first step is to design, construct, and operate a sealed (gas, liquid, and solid) plant growth chamber. A 3.6 m diameter by 6.7 m high closed cylinder (previously used as a hypobaric vessel during the Mercury program) is being modified for this purpose. The chamber is mounted on legs with the central axis vertical. Entrance to the chamber is through an airlock. This chamber will be devoted entirely to higher plant experimentation. Any waste treatment, food processing or product storage studies will be carried on outside of this chamber. Its primary purpose is to provide input and output data on solids, liquids, and gases for single crop species and multiple species production using different nutrient delivery systems.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010445
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Optimization of controlled environments for hydroponic production of leaf lettuce for human life support in CELSS

1986

C.A. Mitchell, S.L. Knight, T.L. Ford

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center …

Partial Abstract

A research project in the food production group of the Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) program sought to define optimum conditions for photosynthetic productivity of a higher plant food crop. The effects of radiation and various atmospheric compositions were studied. ...
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19860010465/downloads/19860010465.pdf
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Spectral effects on the use of photon flux sensors for measurement on photon flux in controlled environments

1986

T.W. Tibbitts, D.A. McSparron, D.T. Krizek

publication: BIOTRONICS

Abstract

Measurements of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) were made under various radiation sources in eleven different controlled environment facilities to compare two commercially available photon-flux sensors and companion meters. Calibration of the sensors was checked by the National Bureau of Standards with both tungstenfilament quartz-halogen lamps and with cool-white fluorescent lamps. Readings from the two lamps agreed for each sensor/meter set within 1 to 2%. Measurements made with the two sensor/meter sets by investigators in each of the laboratories showed excellent agreement (SD= ±1%) in the relative output of the two sensors under a given lamp type, even in different types of plant growth chambers. The two sensor outputs differed systematically with lamp type, however, with the greatest deviation seen between high pressure sodium lamps and incandescent lamps. The #1 sensor reading was about 4% higher than sensor #2 under high pressure sodium lamps and 2% lower under incandescent lamps. This study emphasizes the need for calibration of photosynthetic photon flux sensors/meters under the particular types of lamps being utilized for plant irradiation. Limitations of the PPF concept should also be recognized.
link: https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ja/recordID/8122/?repository=yes
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Controlled environment life support system: Calcium-related leaf injuries on plants

1986

T.W. Tibbitts

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Calcium related injuries to plants grown in controlled environments under conditions which maximize plant growth rates are described. Procedures to encourage movement of calcium into developing leaves of lettuce plants were investigated. The time course and pattern of calcium accumulation was determined to develop effective control procedures for this injury, termed tipburn. Procedures investigated were: (1) increasing the relative humidity to saturation during the dark period and altering root temperatures, (2) maximizing water stress during light and minimizing water stress during dark periods, (3) shortening the light-dark cycle lengths in combination with elevated moisture levels during the dark cycles, (4) reducing nutrient concentrations and (5) vibrating the plants. Saturated humidities at night increased the rate of growth and the large fluctuation in plant water potential encouraged calcium movement to the young leaves and delayed tipburn. Root temperature regulation between 15 and 26 C was not effective in preventing tipburn. Attempts to modulate water stress produced little variation, but no difference in tipburn development. Variations in light-dark cycle lengths also had no effect on calcium concentrations within developing leaves and no variation in tipburn development. Low concentrations of nutrient solution delayed tipburn, presumably because of greater calcium transport in the low concentration plants. Shaking of the plants did not prevent tipburn, but did delay it slightly.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19870012970
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Nitrogen and dry-matter partitioning in soybean plants during onset of and recovery from nitrogen stress

1986

Leslie Tolley-Henry,C. David Raper Jr

publication: Botanical gazette (Chicago, Ill.)

Abstract

The study tested the hypothesis that resupplying nitrogen after a period of nitrogen stress leads to restoration of the balance between root and shoot growth and normal functional activity. Nonnodulated soybean plants were grown hydroponically for 14 days with 1.0 mM NO3- in a complete nutrient solution. One set of plants was continued on the complete nutrient solution for 25 days; a second set was given 0.0 mM NO3- for 25 days; and the third set was given 0.0 mM NO3- for 10 days followed by transfer to the complete solution with 1.0 mM NO3- for 15 days. In continuously nitrogen-stressed plants, emergence and expansion of main-stem and branch leaves were severely inhibited as low nitrogen content limited further growth. This was followed by a shift in partitioning of dry matter from the leaves to the roots, resulting in an initial stimulation of root growth and a decreased shoot:root ratio. Reduced nitrogen also was redistributed from the leaves into the stem and roots. When nitrogen stress was relieved, leaf initiation and expansion were renewed. With the restoration of the balance between root and shoot function, the shoot:root ratio and distribution of reduced nitrogen within the plant organs returned to levels similar to those of nonstressed plants.
doi: 10.1086/337606 pubmed: 11539711 link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/337606
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N.V

1986

Amal Tarbi,Tarek Chtouki,Youssef El kouari,Hassane Erguig,Anna Migalska-Zalas,Abdelkader Aissat

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A method of variable spacing for controlled plant growth systems in spaceflight and terrestrial agriculture applications

1986

J. Knox

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

A higher plant growth system for Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) applications is described. The system permits independent movement of individual plants during growth. Enclosed within variable geometry growth chambers, the system allocates only the volume required by the growing plants. This variable spacing system maintains isolation between root and shoot environments, providing individual control for optimal growth. The advantages of the system for hydroponic and aeroponic growth chambers are discussed. Two applications are presented: (1) the growth of soybeans in a space station common module, and (2) in a terrestrial city greenhouse.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19870016334
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Effects of artificial enclosure of young lettuce leaves on tipburn incidence and leaf calcium concentration

1986

D.J. Barta, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The young developing leaves of 20-day-old lettuce plants (Lactuca sativa L. 'Buttercrunch') were enclosed by aluminized polyethylene sheaths to decrease transpiration and reduce Ca transport. The plants were grown in recirculating solution culture system using a modified half-strength Hoagland's solution under cool-white fluorescent lamps with a photosynthetic photon flux of 350 micromoles s-1 m-2 in a 16:8-hr (light:dark) period. Air temperature and humidity were 20 degrees C and 65%, respectively. After 4 days of enclosure, 53% of the inner leavers (leaves one to 3 cm in length) were tipburned. After the same period, less than 1% of the inner leaves on control plants were tipburned. The concentration of Ca in enclosed inner leaves was 0.63 mg g-1 dry weight, compared to 1.48 mg g-1 dry weight in inner leaves that were not enclosed. The Ca concentration in transpiring outer leaves of all plants was 9.9 mg g-1 dry weight. The Mg concentration in enclosed inner leaves was 2.25 mg g-1 dry weight, compared to 2.34 mg g-1 dry weight in inner leaves that were not enclosed. This research documents that enclosures of leaves at the growing point, as would occur with normal head development, is sufficient to create a limiting concentration of Ca in the enclosed tissue and encourage tipburn development.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.111.3.413 pubmed: 11539770 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/111/3/article-p413.xml
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Utilization of non-conventional systems for conversion of biomass to food components. Recovery and optimization and characterization of algal proteins and lipids

1986

M. Karel, Z. Nakhost

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Protein isolate obtained from green algae (Scenedesmus obliquus) cultivated under controlled conditions was characterized. Molecular weight determination of fractionated algal proteins using SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed a wide spectrum of molecular weights ranging from 15,000 to 220,000. Isoelectric points of dissociated proteins were in the range of 3.95 to 6.20. Amino acid composition of protein isolate compared favorably with FAO standards. High content of essential amino acids leucine, valine, phenylalanine and lysine makes algal protein isolate a high quality component of closed environment life support system (CELSS) diets. To optimize the removal of algal lipids and pigments supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (with and without ethanol as a co-solvent) was used. Addition of ethanol to supercritical CO2 resulted in more efficient removal of algal lipids and produced protein isolate with a good yield and protein recovery. The protein isolate extracted by the above mixture had an improved water solubility.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19870004558
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Expansion and photosynthetic rate of leaves of soybean plants during onset of and recovery from nitrogen stress

1986

Leslie Tolley-Henry,C. David Raper Jr,

publication: Botanical gazette (Chicago, Ill.)

Abstract

This study reports on the effects of nitrogen stress and restoration of nitrogen availability after a period of stress on expansion and photosynthetic rate of soybean leaves of differing maturity. We hypothesized that nitrogen resupply would lead to additional accumulation of reduced nitrogen in the leaves and, ultimately, resumption of leaf initiation and expansion and photosynthetic activity. In continuously nitrogen-stressed plants, expansion of middle trifoliolates of main-stem trifoliates and leaf area at full expansion were severely restricted. Leaves showing the greatest effects were initiated after removal of nitrogen. When the reduced nitrogen concentration in mature leaves of continuously stressed plants fell below 9 mg dm-2, the photosynthetic rate per unit leaf decreased rapidly, reaching a minimum of ca. 6-8 mg dm-2 h-1. The older mature leaves tended to abscise at this point, while the youngest leaves remained on the plant and continued to photosynthesize slowly. When nitrogen was resupplied, leaf expansion and final leaf area increased. Leaf initiation was also stimulated as reduced nitrogen levels rose in the leaves. Photosynthetic rates of the oldest and youngest pair of mature leaves returned to values comparable to those of similar-aged leaves of nonstressed soybean plants.
doi: 10.1086/337607 pubmed: 11539712 link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/337607
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Enhancement of nitrate uptake and growth of barley seedlings by calcium under saline conditions

1986

Michael R. Ward,Muhammad Aslam,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The effect of Ca2+ on NO3- assimilation in young barley (Hordeum vulgare L. var CM 72) seedlings in the presence and absence of NaCl was studied. Calcium increased the activity of the NO3- transporter under saline conditions, but had little effect under nonsaline conditions. Calcium decreased the induction period for the NO3- transporter under both saline and nonsaline conditions but had little effect on its apparent Km for NO3- both in the presence and absence of NaCl. The enhancement of NO3- transport by Ca2+ under saline conditions was dependent on the presence of Ca2+ in the uptake solution along with the salt, since Ca2+ had no effect when supplied before or after salinity stress. Although Mn2+ and Mg2+ enhanced NO3- uptake under saline conditions, neither was as effective as Ca2+. In longer studies, increasing the Ca2+ concentration in saline nutrient solutions resulted in increases in NO3- assimilation and seedling growth.
doi: 10.1104/pp.80.2.520 pubmed: 11539765 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/80/2/520/6083857
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Effect of elevated CO2 growth conditions on the nutritive composition and acceptability of baked sweetpotatoes

1986

J.Y. Lu, P.K. Biswas, R.D. Pace

publication: Journal of Food Science

Abstract

‘Georgia-Jet’ sweet potatoes were grown at CO2 concentrations of 354, 431, 506, and 659 ppm for 90 days. Elevated CO2 concentrations decreased protein, total carotenoids and insoluble dietary fiber. An increase in dry matter and a reddish-orange color was observed at 506 and 659 ppm CO2 concentrations. Sensory evaluation scores for flavor and moistness indicated that sweet potatoes grown under high CO2 concentrations were acceptable and not different from the control.
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb11129.x link: https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb11129.x
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Visible solar-ray supply system for space station

1986

Kei Mori,Nobuhiko Tanatsugu,Masamichi Yamashita

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

The solar-ray supply system presented here will mainly provide the visible solar ray necessary for the various activities in the space station, such as cultivation experiments on plants, fishes, birds and animals, room lighting for modules, and crew sun-bathing. Even natural solar rays reaching earth surface contain harmful rays for human beings, animals, higher plants and algae: Ultraviolet rays of medium (UV-B) and long wavelength (UV-A), infrared and heat rays, are all harmful to life. On a space station, the most dangerous short-wavelength ultraviolet (UB-C), X-ray and gamma-ray are additionally included, besides those cited above in markedly higher intensity. The range of rays useful and harmless to life is the visible band of wavelengths. No conclusive studies have been conducted concerning the unexpected powerful effects on the growth of plants and algae that can be brought by pure visible solar rays, in comparison with the corresponding effects of other kinds of artificial light source.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(86)90078-0 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0094576586900780
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Simulation model for plant growth in controlled environment systems

1986

C. David Raper Jr,Mien Wann

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

The role of the mathematical model is to relate the individual processes to environmental conditions and the behavior of the whole plant. Using the controlled-environment facilities of the phytotron at North Carolina State University for experimentation at the whole-plant level and methods for handling complex models, researchers developed a plant growth model to describe the relationships between hierarchial levels of the crop production system. The fundamental processes that are considered are: (1) interception of photosynthetically active radiation by leaves, (2) absorption of photosynthetically active radiation, (3) photosynthetic transformation of absorbed radiation into chemical energy of carbon bonding in solube carbohydrates in the leaves, (4) translocation between carbohydrate pools in leaves, stems, and roots, (5) flow of energy from carbohydrate pools for respiration, (6) flow from carbohydrate pools for growth, and (7) aging of tissues. These processes are described at the level of organ structure and of elementary function processes. The driving variables of incident photosynthetically active radiation and ambient temperature as inputs pertain to characterization at the whole-plant level. The output of the model is accumulated dry matter partitioned among leaves, stems, and roots; thus, the elementary processes clearly operate under the constraints of the plant structure which is itself the output of the model.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010443
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The uptake of NO3, NO2 and NH4 by intact wheat (Triticum aestivum) seedlings

1986

Sham S. Goyal,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Plant Physiology

Abstract

The inducibility and kinetics of the NO3−, NO2−, and NH4+ transporters in roots of wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum cv Yercora Rojo) were characterized using precise methods approaching constant analysis of the substrate solutions. A microcomputer-controlled automated high performance liquid chromatography system was used to determine the depletion of each N species (initially at 1 millimolar) from complete nutrient solutions. Uptake rate analyses were performed using computerized curve-fitting techniques. More precise estimates were obtained for the time required for and the extent of the induction of each transporter. Up to 10 and 6 hours, respectively, were required to achieve apparent full induction of the NO3− and NO2− transporters. Evidence for substrate inducibility of the NH4+ transporters requiring 5 hours is presented. The transport of NO3− was mediated by a dual system (or dual phasic), whereas only single systems were found for transport of NO2− and NH4+. The Km values for NO3−, NO2−, and NH4+ were, respectively, 0.027, 0.054, and 0.05 millimolar. The Km for mechanism II of NO3− transport could not be defined in this study as it exhibited only apparent first order kinetics up to 1 millimolar.
doi: 10.1104/pp.82.4.1051 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/82/4/1051/6082071
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Airborne trace contaminants of possible interest in CELSS

1986

J.S. Garavelli

publication: Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

One design goal of Closed Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) for long duration space missions is to maintain an atmosphere which is healthy for all the desirable biological species and not deleterious to any of the mechanical components in that atmosphere. CELESS design must take into account the interactions of at least six major components; (1) humans and animals, (2) higher plants, (3) microalgae, (4) bacteria and fungi, (5) the waste processing system, and (6) other mechanical systems. Each of these major components can be both a source and a target of airborne trace contaminants in a CELSS. A range of possible airborne trace contaminants is discussed within a chemical classification scheme. These contaminants are analyzed with respect to their probable sources among the six major components and their potential effects on those components. Data on airborne chemical contaminants detected in shuttle missions is presented along with this analysis. The observed concentrations of several classes of compounds, including hydrocarbons, halocarbons, halosilanes, amines and nitrogen oxides, are considered with respect to the problems which they present to CELSS.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010452
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Nitrogen uptake and utilization by intact plants

1986

C.D. Raper Jr, L.C. Tolley-Henry

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

The results of experiments support the proposed conceptual model that relates nitrogen uptake activity by plants as a balanced interdependence between the carbon-supplying function of the shoot and the nitrogen-supplying function of the roots. The data are being used to modify a dynamic simulation of plant growth, which presently describes carbon flows through the plant, to describe nitrogen uptake and assimilation within the plant system. Although several models have been proposed to predict nitrogen uptake and partitioning, they emphasize root characteristics affecting nutrient uptake and relay on empirical methods to describe the relationship between nitrogen and carbon flows within the plant. Researchers, on the other hand, propose to continue to attempt a mechanistic solution in which the effects of environment on nitrogen (as well as carbon) assimilation are incorporated through their direct effects on photosynthesis, respiration, and aging processes.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010470
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Utilization of potatoes in CELSS: Productivity and growing systems

1986

T.W. Tibbitts

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

The potato plant (solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the basic food crops that should be studied for use in NASA's closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS). It offers high yields per unit area and time, with most of this production in the form of highly digestible carbohydrate. Potatoes, like wheat and rice, are particularly useful in human diets because of their nutritional versatility and ease of processing and preparation. The growth of the potato was studied and it was found to be a useful species for life support systems.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010464
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An analysis of the productivity of a CELSS continuous algal culture system

1986

R. Radmer, P. Behrens, E. Fernandez, K. Arnett

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

One of the most attractive aspects of using algal cultures as plant components for a Closed Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) is the efficiency with which they can be grown. Although algae are not necessarily intrinsically more efficient than higher plants, the ease which they can be handled and manipulated (more like chemical reagents than plants), and the culturing techniques available, result in much higher growth rates than are usually attainable with higher plants. Furthermore, preliminary experiments have demonstrated that algal growth and physiology is not detectable altered in a microgravity environment, (1) whereas the response of higher plants to zero gravity is unknown. In order to rationally design and operate culture systems, it is necessary to understand how the macroparameters of a culture system, e.g., productivity, are related to the physiological aspects of the algal culture. A first principles analysis of culture system is discussed, and a mathematical model that describes the relationship of culture productivity to the cell concentration of light-limited culture is derived. The predicted productivity vs cell concentration curve agrees well with the experimental data obtained to test this model, indicating that this model permits an accurate prediction of culture productivity given the growth parameters of the system.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010456
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Potato leaf explants as a spaceflight plant test system

1986

R.M. Wheeler

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological …

Abstract

experimentation during spaceflight. In the case of potato, a crop currently being studied for application to bioregenerative life support systems, excised leaves and their subtended axillary buds can be used to test a variety of stem growth and development phases ranging from tubers through stolons (horizontal stems) to upright leafy shoots. The leaves can be fit well into small-volume test packages and sustained under relatively low irradiance levels using light-weight growing media. Tubers formed on potato leaf cuttings can yield up from 0.5 to 1.0 g fresh mass 10 days after excision and up to 2.0 g or more, 14 days from excision.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010468
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Closed culture plant studies: Implications for CELSS

1986

T. Hoshizaki

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

Arabidopsis plants were grown in closed cultures similar to those used in space experiments. A shift in metabolism from photosynthesis to respiration is indicated by the accumulation of CO2 in the culture atmosphere. Reproductive growth is suppressed. Plant growth and development is apparently related to the atmospheric volume available to each plant. The implications of these findings to closed ecological systems are given: (1) there is a need for an open culture having ample gas exchange, (2) CO2 levels must be maintained within prescribed limits, (3) the minimum atmospheric volume required for each plant is dependent on the precision of the gas monitors and of the subsystems used to maintain appropriate levels of various atmospheric components, and (4) volatiles such as ethylene and terpenes emanating from plants be monitored and reduced to benign concentrations.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010466
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Development of space technology for ecological habitats

1986

N.V. Martello

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological …

Partial Abstract

using CELSS technology on the lunar surface, or to establish a habitat on the Martian moon Phobos. The experience gained with habitats on these moons would be essential for the establishment of a habitat on the Martian surface, which has its own unique environmental conditions and design problems for habitation. Space Station experience would also be invaluable in developing scenarios using CELSS technology for transit to Mars or elsewhere in the solar system. ...
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19860010472/downloads/19860010472.pdf
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Utilization of potatoes for life support systems in space. I. Cultivar-photoperiod interaction

1986

Raymond M. Wheeler,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: American potato journal

Abstract

The productive potential of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L. cvs. Norland, Superior, Norchip, and Kennebec) was assessed for life support systems being proposed for space stations and/or lunar colonies. Plants were grown in walk-in-growth rooms for 15 weeks at 20 C under 12-, 16- and 20-h photoperiods of 400 micromoles m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF). Norland yielded the greatest tuber fresh weight, producing 2.3, 2.4, and 2.9 kg/plant under 12-, 16-, and 20-h photoperiods, respectively. The respective yields for the other cultivars under 12-, 16-, and 20-h were: Superior, 1.9, 1.5, and 1.8 kg/plant; Norchip, 1.8, 1.4, and 2.0 kg/plant; and Kennebec, 2.3, 0.2, 0.8 kg/plant. Shoot and total plant biomass increased with lengthening photoperiods except for Kennebec, which showed increased shoot growth but no change in total growth with the longer photoperiods. Kennebec shoot growth under the 20-h photoperiod, and to some extent under 16-h, was noticeably stunted with shortened internodes. In addition, leaves of these plants showed mild chlorosis with rusty "flecking" of the surfaces. The harvest index (ratio of tuber yield/total biomass) was highest for all cultivars under the 12-h photoperiod, with a maximum of 0.69 for Norland. Similarly, the tuber yield per input of irradiant energy also was highest under 12-h for all cultivars. The tuber yield expressed on an area basis for the highest yielding treatment (Norland under 20-h) equaled 2.2 kg dry matter m-2. Over 15 week this equates to a productivity of 20.7 g tuber dry matter m-2 day-1. Assuming 3.73 kcal per g tuber dry matter and a daily human dietary requirement of 2800 kcal, then 36 m2 of potatoes could supply the daily energy requirement for one human. Potential for increasing productivity is discussed.
doi: 10.1007/BF02854441 pubmed: 11539761 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02854441
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A method for screening plants for space use

1986

J.D. Goeschel, R.L. Sauer, H.W. Scheld

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled

Abstract

A cost-effective methodology which monitors numerous dynamic aspects of carbon assimilation and allocation kinetics in live, intact plants is discussed. Analogous methods can apply to nitrogen uptake and allocation. This methodology capitalizes on the special properties of the short-lived, positron-gamma emitting isotope C-11 especially when applied as CO2-11 in a special extended square wave (ESW) pattern. The 20.4 minute half-life allows for repeated or continuous experiments on the same plant over periods of minutes, hours, days, or weeks. The steady-state isotope equilibrium approached during the ESW experiments, and the parameters which can be analyzed by this technique are also direct results of that short half-life. Additionally, the paired .511 MeV gamma rays penetrate any amount of tissue and their 180 deg opposite orientation provides good collimation and allows coincidence counting which nearly eliminates background.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010467
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Growth responses of eggplant and soybean seedlings to mechanical stress in greenhouse and outdoor environments

1986

J.G. Latimer, T. Pappas, C.A. Mitchell

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Eggplant (Solanum melongena L. var. esculentum ‘Burpee’s Black Beauty’) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr. 'Wells II'] seedlings were assigned to a greenhouse or a windless or windy outdoor environment. Plants within each environment received either periodic seismic (shaking) or thigmic (flexing or rubbing) treatments, or were left undisturbed. Productivity (dry weight) and dimensional (leaf area and stem length) growth parameters generally were reduced more by mechanical stress in the greenhouse (soybean) or outdoor-windless environment (eggplant) than in the outdoor windy environment. Outdoor exposure enhanced both stem and leaf specific weights, whereas mechanical stress enhanced only leaf specific weight. Although both forms of controlled mechanical stress tended to reduce node and internode diameters of soybean, outdoor exposure increased stem diameter.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.111.5.694 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/111/5/article-p694.xml
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Controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS) Conceptual design option study

1986

M. Oleson, R.L. Olson

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Results are given of a study to explore options for the development of a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) for a future Space Station. In addition, study results will benefit the design of other facilities such as the Life Sciences Research Facility, a ground-based CELSS demonstrator, and will be useful in planning longer range missions such as a lunar base or manned Mars mission. The objectives were to develop weight and cost estimates for one CELSS module selected from a set of preliminary plant growth unit (PGU) design options. Eleven Space Station CELSS module conceptual PGU designs were reviewed, components and subsystems identified and a sensitivity analysis performed. Areas where insufficient data is available were identified and divided into the categories of biological research, engineering research, and technology development. Topics which receive significant attention are lighting systems for the PGU, the use of automation within the CELSS system, and electric power requirements. Other areas examined include plant harvesting and processing, crop mix analysis, air circulation and atmosphere contaminant flow subsystems, thermal control considerations, utility routing including accessibility and maintenance, and nutrient subsystem design.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19880005243
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Effect of 16 and 24 hours daily radiation (light) on lettuce growth

1986

H.V. Koontz, R.P. Prince

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

A 50% increase in total radiation by extending the photoperiod from 16 to 24 hr doubled the weight of all cultivars of loose-leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) 'Grand Rapids Forcing', 'Waldmanns Green', 'Salad Bowl', and 'RubyConn', but not a Butterhead cultivar, 'Salina'. When total daily radiation (moles of photons) was the same, plants under continuous radiation weighed 30% to 50% more than plants under a 16 hr photoperiod. By using continuous radiation on loose-leaf lettuce, fewer lamp fixtures were required and yield was increased.
pubmed: 11539771 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539771
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Effects of NO3 -, NH4 +, and urea on each other’s uptake and incorporation

1986

R.C. Huffaker, M.R. Ward

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

The purpose was to determine the optimal use by wheat plants of the N sources expected from processing biological waste products, NO3(-),NO2(-)NH4(+), and urea. The approach was to determine the uptake and metabolic products of each N source (from single and multiple component solutions), inhibitory effects of each, feedback inhibition, and overall in vivo regulation of the rates of assimilation of each by wheat plants. Previously, researchers determined the interactions of NO3(-),NO2(-),NH4(+) on each other's uptake and incorporation. The assimilation and some of its effects on NO3(-) and NH4(+) assimilation which have been completed to data are discussed.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010462
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Wheat response to CO2 enrichment: CO2 exchanges, transpiration, and mineral uptakes

1986

M. André, H. DuCloux, Ch Richaud

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

When simulating canopies planted in varied densities, researchers were able to demonstrate that increase of dry matter production by enhancing CO2 quickly becomes independant of increase of leaf area, especially above leaf area index of 2; dry matter gain results mainly from photosynthesis stimulation per unit of surface (primary CO2 effect). When crop density is low (the plants remaining alone a longer time), the effects of increasing leaf surface (tillering, leaf elongation here, branching for other plants etc.) was noticeable and dry matter simulation factor reached 1.65. This area effect decreased when canopy was closed in, as the effect of different surfaces no longer worked. The stimulation of photosynthesis reached to the primary CO2 effect. The accumulation in dry matter which was fast during that phase made the original weight advantage more and more neglectible. Comparison with short term measurements showed that first order long term effect of CO2 in wheat is predictible with short term experiment, from the effect of CO2 on photosynthesis measured on reference sample.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010461
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The role of plant disease in the development of controlled ecological life support systems

1986

B. Nelson

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

Plant diseases could be important factors affecting growth of higher plants in Closed Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS). Disease control, therefore, will be needed to maintain healthy plants. The most important controls should be aimed at preventing the introduction, reproduction and spread of pathogens and preventing plant infection. An integrared ease control program will maximize that approach. In the design and operation of CELSS, plant disease should be considered an important aspect of plant growth. The effects of plant diseases are reviewed and several disease control measures are discussed.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010471
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Controlled Environment Life Support System: Growth studies with potatoes

1986

T.W. Tibbitts, R.M. Wheeler

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Results of experiments conducted to maximize the productivity of potatoes grown under controlled environmental conditions are discussed. A variety of parameters is examined which affect potato growth, specifically, photoperiod, light intensity, temperature, nitrogen nutrition, carbon dioxide concentration and culture techniques. These experiments were conducted using five different cultivars, Russet Burbank, Norchip, Superior, Kennebec and Norland. To achieve high productivity, three specific objectives were explored: (1) to develop effective cultural procedures, (2) to determine the most effective photoperiod and (3) to develop a mist culture system. It is felt that the productivity obtained in this study is below the maximum that can be obtained. High irradiance levels coupled with tuber-promoting conditions such as cooler temperatures, increased CO2 levels and lowered nitrogen concentrations should allow increases in tuber production. Tuberization appears to be accelerated by short daylengths although final yields are not increased. Mist culture techniques have not yet produced fully developed tubers. The use of supporting media and alteration of the nitrogen content of the mist solution are being explored as a way to allow tubers to develop to maturity.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860022629
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Studies on maximum yield of wheat for the controlled environments of space

1986

G. Bugbee, F.B. Salisbury

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

The economic feasibility of using food-producing crop plants in a closed ecological Life-Support System (CELSS) will ultimately depend on the energy and area (or volume) required to provide the nutritional requirements for each person. Energy and area requirements are, to some extent, inversely related; that is, an increased energy input results in a decreased area requirement and vice versa. A major goal of the research effort was to determine the controlled-environment good-production efficiency of wheat per unit area, per unit time, and per unit energy input.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010463
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A novel approach and fully automated microcomputer-based system to study kinetics of NO3 -, NO2 - and NH4 + transport simultaneously by intact wheat seedlings

1986

S. Goyal, R.C. Huffaker

publication: Plant, Cell & Environment

Abstract

A 16-channel fully automated microcomputer-based system was designed to measure the disappearance of NO−3 NO−2 and NH+4 simultaneously from uptake solutions. The analyses were done using high-performance liquid chromatography. Statistical procedures were used to generate transport kinetics and interactions amongst NO−3, NO−2 and NH+4 by intact wheat seedlings. The simultaneous analysis of NO−3, NO−2 and NH+4 at real-time; the accommodation of varying sampling intervals; the capability to study up to 16 experimental units in synchrony; and the analysis of the data with a microcomputer, make this a powerful system for studying transport kinetics and interactions.
doi: 10.1111/1365-3040.ep11611654 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1365-3040.ep11611654
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Growth and tuberization of potato (Solanum tuberosum L) under continuous light

1986

Raymond M. Wheeler,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The growth and tuberization of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) maintained for 6 weeks under four different regimes of continuous irradiance were compared to plants given 12 hours light and 12 hours dark. Treatments included: (a) continuous photosynthetic photon flux of 200 micromoles per square meter per second cool-white fluorescent (CWF); (b) continuous 400 micromoles per square meter per second CWF; (c) 12 hours 400 micromoles per square meter per second CWF plus 12 hours dim CWF at 5 micromoles per square meter per second; (d) 12 hours [400] micromoles per square meter per second CWF plus 12 hours dim incandescent (INC) at 5 micromoles per square meter per second and a control treatment of 12 hours light at 400 micromoles per square meter per second CWF and 12 hours dark. The study included five cultivars ranging from early- to late-season types: 'Norland,' 'Superior,''Norchip,' 'Russet Burbank,' and 'Kennebec,' Tuber development progressed well under continuous irradiation at 400 micromoles per square meter per second and under 12 hours irradiance and 12 hours dark, while tuber development was suppressed in all other light treatments. Continuous irradiation at 200 or 400 micromoles per square meter per second resulted in severe stunting and leaf malformation on 'Superior' and 'Kennebec' plants, but little or no injury and vigorous shoot growth in the other cultivars. No injury or stunting were apparent under 12-dim light or 12-dark treatments. Plants given 12 hours dim INC showed significantly greater stem elongation but less total biomass than plants in other treatments. The continuous light encouraged shoot growth over tuber growth but this trend was overridden by providing a high irradiance level. The variation among cultivars for tolerance to continuous lighting indicates that potato may be a useful species for photoinhibition studies.
doi: 10.1104/pp.80.3.801 pubmed: 11539039 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/80/3/801/6081408
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Can plants grow in quasi-vacuum?

1986

M. Andre, Ch Richaud

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

It was found that the growth of plants is possible under absolute pressure 14 times lower than the atmospheric pressure. In first approximation, plants ignore the absence of nitrogen and only react to the partial pressure of O2. Hence the growth of plantlets was delayed under low pressures of O2 in both cases with and without nitrogen. The CO2 availability being limited by the carbon content of the seed, the final results after 20 days were very similar.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010460
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The effect of ultradian and orbital cycles on plant growth

1986

W. Berry, T. Hoshizaki, A. Ulrich

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

Abstract

In a series of experiments using sugar beets, researchers investigated the effects of varying cycles lengths on growth (0.37 hr to 48 hr). Each cycle was equally divided into a light and dark period so that each treatment regardless of cycle length received the same amount of light over the 17 weeks of the experiment. Two growth parameters were used to evaluate the effects of cycle length, total fresh weight and sucrose content of the storage root. Both parameters showed very similar responses in that under long cycles (12 hr or greater) growth was normal, whereas plants growing under shorter cycle periods were progressively inhibited. Minimum growth occurred at a cycle period of 0.75 hr. The yield at the 0.75 hr cycle, where was at a minimum, for total fresh weight was only 51 percent compared to the 24 hr cycle. The yield of sucrose was even more reduced at 41 percent of the 24 hr cycle.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010469
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Utilization of potatoes for life support systems. II. The effects of temperature under 24-h and 12-h photoperiods

1986

RM Wheeler, KL Steffen, TW Tibbitts, JP Palta

publication: American potato journal

Abstract

The growth and tuberization of Norland potatoes were studied under five different temperatures and two photoperiods. Treatment levels included 12, 16, 20, 24, and 28 C with either a 24-h (continuous light) or a 12-h photoperiod at 400 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF. Plants were grown in 6-liter containers and harvested at 56-days-age. Stem length increased with increasing temperature under both photoperiods. The highest tuber yield occurred at 16 C under the 24-h photoperiod (755 g/plant) and at 20 C under the 12-h photoperiod (460 g/plant). Little or no tuber formation occurred at 28 C under either photoperiod or at 24 C under continuous light. As with tuber yield, the highest total plant dry weights also occurred at 16 C under the 24-h photoperiod and at 20 C under the 12-h photoperiod. Harvest index (tuber dry weight to total dry weight ratio) decreased with increasing temperatures and with continuous light. Results indicate that good growth and tuberization can occur under continuous light, and that increasing the photoperiod form 12 to 24 h effectively decreased the optimal temperature for tuber formation from near 20 C to 16 C. Alternatively, the results imply that a cooler temperatures, the potato becomes less obligate for dark period stimulation of tuberization.
doi: 10.1007/BF02852926 pubmed: 11539762
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Utilization of potatoes for life support systems in space. I. Cultivar-photoperiod interactions

1986

R. M. Wheeler,T. W. Tibbitts

publication: American potato journal

Abstract

The productive potential of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L. cvs. Norland, Superior, Norchip, and Kennebec) was assessed for life support systems being proposed for space stations and/or lunar colonies. Plants were grown in walk-in-growth rooms for 15 weeks at 20 C under 12-, 16- and 20-h photoperiods of 400 micromoles m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF). Norland yielded the greatest tuber fresh weight, producing 2.3, 2.4, and 2.9 kg/plant under 12-, 16-, and 20-h photoperiods, respectively. The respective yields for the other cultivars under 12-, 16-, and 20-h were: Superior, 1.9, 1.5, and 1.8 kg/plant; Norchip, 1.8, 1.4, and 2.0 kg/plant; and Kennebec, 2.3, 0.2, 0.8 kg/plant. Shoot and total plant biomass increased with lengthening photoperiods except for Kennebec, which showed increased shoot growth but no change in total growth with the longer photoperiods. Kennebec shoot growth under the 20-h photoperiod, and to some extent under 16-h, was noticeably stunted with shortened internodes. In addition, leaves of these plants showed mild chlorosis with rusty "flecking" of the surfaces. The harvest index (ratio of tuber yield/total biomass) was highest for all cultivars under the 12-h photoperiod, with a maximum of 0.69 for Norland. Similarly, the tuber yield per input of irradiant energy also was highest under 12-h for all cultivars. The tuber yield expressed on an area basis for the highest yielding treatment (Norland under 20-h) equaled 2.2 kg dry matter m-2. Over 15 week this equates to a productivity of 20.7 g tuber dry matter m-2 day-1. Assuming 3.73 kcal per g tuber dry matter and a daily human dietary requirement of 2800 kcal, then 36 m2 of potatoes could supply the daily energy requirement for one human. Potential for increasing productivity is discussed.
doi: 10.1007/BF02854441 pubmed: 11539761 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02852926
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Temperature and photoperiod responses of soybean embryos cultured in vitro

1986

C. David Raper Jr,Robert P. Patterson

publication: Canadian journal of botany

Abstract

Temperature and photoperiod each have direct effects on growth rate of excised embryos of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill). To determine if the effects of photoperiod are altered by temperature, embryos of 'Ransom II' were cultured in vitro at 18, 24, and 30 °C under photoperiod durations of 12 and 18 h at an irradiance of 9 W m−2 (700 to 850 nm) and a photosynthetic photon flux density of 58 μmol m−2 s−1 (400 to 700 nm). Accumulation rates of fresh and dry weight were greater under 18-h than 12-h photoperiods over the entire range of temperature. Water content of the cultured embryos was not affected by photoperiod but was greater at 18 and 30 than 24 °C. The accumulation rate of dry weight increased from 18 to 26 but declined at 30 °C.
doi: 10.1139/b86-320 link: https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/b86-320
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Utilization of ammonium as a nitrogen source. Effects of ambient acidity on growth and nitrogen accumulation by soybean

1986

Leslie Tolley-Henry,C. David Raper

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Dry matter accumulation of plants utilizing NH4+ as the sole nitrogen source generally is less than that of plants receiving NO3- unless acidity of the root-zone is controlled at a pH of about 6.0. To test the hypothesis that the reduction in growth is a consequence of nitrogen stress within the plant in response to effects of increased acidity during uptake of NH4+ by roots, nonnodulated soybean plants (Glycine max [L.] Merr. cv Ransom) were grown for 24 days in flowing nutrient culture containing 1.0 millimolar NH4+ as the nitrogen source. Acidities of the culture solutions were controlled at pH 6.1, 5.1, and 4.1 +/- 0.1 by automatic additions of 0.01 N H2SO4 or Ca(OH)2. Plants were sampled at intervals of 3 to 4 days for determination of dry matter and nitrogen accumulation. Rates of NH4+ uptake per gram root dry weight were calculated from these data. Net CO2 exchange rates per unit leaf area were measured on attached leaves by infrared gas analysis. When acidity of the culture solution was increased from pH 6.1 to 5.1, dry matter and nitrogen accumulation were reduced by about 40% within 14 days. Net CO2 exchange rates per unit leaf area, however, were not affected, and the decreased growth was associated with a reduction in rates of appearance and expansion of new leaves. The uptake rates of NH4+ per gram root were about 25% lower throughout the 24 days at pH 5.1 than at 6.1. A further increase in solution acidity from pH 5.1 to 4.1 resulted in cessation of net dry matter production and appearance of new leaves within 10 days. Net CO2 exchange rates per unit leaf area declined rapidly until all viable leaves had abscised by 18 days. Uptake rates of NH4+, which were initially about 50% lower at pH 4.1 than at 6.1 continued to decline with time of exposure until net uptake ceased at 10 days. Since these responses also are characteristic of the sequence of responses that occur during onset and progression of a nitrogen stress, they corroborate our hypothesis.
doi: 10.1104/pp.82.1.54 pubmed: 11539090 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/82/1/54/6082151
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Nodule activity and allocation of photosynthate of soybean during recovery from water stress

1987

Robert J. Fellows,Robert P. Patterson,C. David Raper,Dorothy Harris

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Nodulated soybean plants (Glycine max [L.] Merr. cv Ransom) in a growth-chamber study were subjected to a leaf water potential (Ψw) of −2.0 megapascal during vegetative growth. Changes in nonstructural carbohydrate contents of leaves, stems, roots, and nodules, allocation of dry matter among plant parts, in situ specific nodule activity, and in situ canopy apparent photosynthetic rate were measured in stressed and nonstressed plants during a 7-day period following rewatering. Leaf and nodule Ψw also were determined. At the time of maximum stress, concentration of nonstructural carbohydrates had declined in leaves of stressed, relative to nonstressed, plants, and the concentration of nonstructural carbohydrates had increased in stems, roots, and nodules. Sucrose concentrations in roots and nodules of stressed plants were 1.5 and 3 times greater, respectively, than those of nonstressed plants. Within 12 hours after rewatering, leaf and nodule Ψw of stressed plants had returned to values of nonstressed plants. Canopy apparent photosynthesis and specific nodule activity of stressed plants recovered to levels for nonstressed plants within 2 days after rewatering. The elevated sucrose concentrations in roots and nodules of stressed plants also declined rapidly upon rehydration. The increase in sucrose concentration in nodules, as well as the increase of carbohydrates in roots and stems, during water stress and the rapid disappearance upon rewatering indicates that inhibition of carbohydrate utilization within the nodule may be associated with loss of nodule activity. Availability of carbohydrates within the nodules and from photosynthetic activity following rehydration of nodules may mediate the rate of recovery of N2-fixation activity.
doi: 10.1104/pp.84.2.456 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/84/2/456/6082378
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Design and performance of the KSC biomass production chamber

1987

Ralph P. Prince,William M. Knott,John C. Sager,Suzanne E. Hilding

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

An atmospherically sealed chamber has been constructed for the purpose of studying gas, liquid, and microbial contaminants produced by growing food crops. This chamber is designed to provide suitable biomass for evaluation of quality, yield, volume, and energy for different environments and nutrient delivery systems.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44472963
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Biomass recycle as a means to improve the energy efficiency of CELSS algal culture systems

1987

R. Radmer,J. Cox,D. Lieberman,P. Behrens,K. Arnett

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Algal cultures can be very rapid and efficient means to generate biomass and regenerate the atmosphere for closed environmental life support systems. However, as in the case of most higher plants, a significant fraction of the biomass produced by most algae cannot be directly converted to a useful food product by standard food technology procedures. This waste biomass will serve as an energy drain on the overall system unless it can be efficiently recycled without a significant loss of its energy content. We report experiments in which cultures of the algae Scenedesmus obliquus were grown in the light and at the expense of an added carbon source, which either replaced or supplemented the actinic light. As part of these experiments we tested hydrolyzed waste biomass from these same algae to determine whether the algae themselves could be made part of the biological recycling process. Results indicate that hydrolyzed algal (and plant) biomass can serve as carbon and energy sources for the growth of these algae, suggesting that the efficiency of the closed system could be significantly improved using this recycling process.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90027-5 pubmed: 11537259 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117787900275
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Orbital light/dark cycle effects on plant growth. Space Life Sciences Symposium: Three Decades of Life Science Research in Space

1987

R.C. Morrow, R.J. Bula, T.W. Tibbitts

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UV-B radiation and photosynthetic irradiance acclimate eggplant for outdoor exposure

1987

J.G. Latimer, C.A. Mitchell

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Treatment of greenhouse-grown eggplant (, Solanum melongena L. var. esculentum Nees.‘Burpee’s Black Beauty’) seedlings with supplemental photosyntheti-cally active radiation from cool-white fluorescent lamps increased growth of plants subsequently transferred outdoors relative to growth of plants that received no sup plemental radiation or were shaded to 45% of solar irradiation in the greenhouse before transfer outdoors. Eggplant seedlings transferred outdoors were placed under plastic tarps either to provide relative protection from solar ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation (280-315 nm) using Mylar film or to allow exposure to UV-B using cellulose acetate. Protection of seedlings from UV-B radiation resulted in greater leaf expansion than for UV-B-exposed seedlings, but no change in leaf or shoot dry weight occurred after 9 days of treatment. Specific leaf weight increased in response to UV-B exposure out doors. Exposure of eggplant to UV-B radiation from fluorescent sunlamps in the green house also decreased leaf expansion and leaf and shoot dry weight gain after 5 days of treatment. However, there were no differences in leaf or shoot dry weight relative to control plants after 12 days of UV-B treatment, indicating that UV-B treated plants had acclimated to the treatment and actually had caught up with non-UV-B-irradiated plants in terms of growth.
Initial exposure of greenhouse-grown her baceous seedlings or transplants to outdoor conditions frequently results in temporary stunting of plant growth and development. This period of morphological and physiolog ical adaptation to a new environment is called “acclimation”. The outdoor environment initially presents a variety of “stresses” to tender seedlings, such as higher UV-B (280-315 nm) and photosynthetically active radia tion (PAR)(400-700 nm), greater fluctua tions in temperature and humidity, and more mechanical disturbance from wind and pre cipitation than would be encountered in a greenhouse.

link: https://www.academia.edu/download/91492710/article-p426.pdf
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USU research helps agriculture enter the space age

1987

F.B. Salisbury

publication: Utah science

Abstract

NASA: Research at the Utah State University College of Agriculture that is relevant to the space life sciences is reviewed. Specific programs detailed are gravitropism of dicot stems, maximization of wheat yields for use in space exploration, and plant development processes in wheat in microgravity.
pubmed: 11540892 link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11540892/
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Comparison of fluorescent and high-pressure sodium lamps on growth of leaf lettuce

1987

H.V. Koontz, R.P. Prince, R.F. Koontz

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Radiation from high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps provided more than a 50% increased yield (fresh and dry weight of tops) of loose-leaf lettuce cultivars Grand Rapids Forcing and RubyConn, compared to that obtained by radiation from cool-white fluorescent (CWF) lamps at equal photosynthetic photon flux; yet, input wattage was approximately 36% less. It was postulated that the considerable output of 700 to 850 nm radiation from the HPS lamp was a significant factor of the increased yield. Under HPS lamps, the leaves of both cultivars were slightly less green with very little red pigmentation ('RubyConn') and slightly elongated, compared to CWF, but plant productivity per unit electrical energy input was vastly superior with HPS.
pubmed: 11538250 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11538250
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Application of photosynthetic N2-fixing cyanobacteria to the CELSS program

1987

Ian V. Fry,Jana Hrabeta,Joe D'Souza,Lester Packer

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The feasibility of using photosynthetic microalgae (cyanobacteria) as a subsystem component for the CELSS program, with particular emphasis on the manipulation of the biomass (protein/carbohydrate) has been addressed. Using factors which retard growth rates, but not photosynthetic electron flux, the partitioning of photosynthetically derived reductant may be dictated towards CO2 fixation (carbohydrate formation) and away from N2 fixation (protein formation). Cold shock treatment of fairly dense cultures markedly increases the glycogen content from 1% to 35% (dry weight), and presents a useful technique to change the protein/carbohydrate ratio of these organisms to a more nutritionally acceptable form.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90030-5 pubmed: 11537268 link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19860010458
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Algal culture studies for CELSS

1987

R. Radmer, P. Behrens, K. Arnett, R. Gladue, J. Cox, D. Lieberman

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Microalgae are well-suited as a component of a Closed Environmental Life Support System (CELSS), since they can couple the closely related functions of food production and atmospheric regeneration. The objective was to provide a basis for predicting the response of CELSS algal cultures, and thus the food supply and air regeneration system, to changes in the culture parameters. Scenedesmus growth was measured as a function of light intensity, and the spectral dependence of light absorption by the algae as well as algal respiration in the light were determined as a function of cell concentration. These results were used to test and confirm a mathematical model that describes the productivity of an algal culture in terms of the competing processes of photosynthesis and respiration. The relationship of algal productivity to cell concentration was determined at different carbon dioxide concentrations, temperatures, and light intensities. The maximum productivity achieved by an air-grown culture was found to be within 10% of the computed maximum productivity, indicating that CO2 was very efficiently removed from the gas stream by the algal culture. Measurements of biomass productivity as a function of cell concentration at different light intensities indicated that both the productivity and efficiency of light utilization were greater at higher light intensities.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19870017076
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Stimulation of productivity of hydroponic lettuce in controlled environments with triacontanol

1987

S.L. Knight, C.A. Mitchell

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Triacontanol (1-triacontanol) applied as a foliar spray at 10(-7) M to 4-day-old, hydroponically grown leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seedlings in a controlled environment increased leaf fresh and dry weight 13% to 20% and root fresh and dry weight 13% to 24% 6 days after application, relative to plants sprayed with water. When applied at 8 as well as 4 days after seeding, triacontanol increased plant fresh and dry weight, leaf area, and mean relative growth rate 12% to 37%. There was no benefit of repeating application of triacontanol in terms of leaf dry weight gain.
pubmed: 11539702 link: https://www.academia.edu/download/91492713/article-p1307.pdf
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Controlled ecological life support systems. Design, development and use of a ground-based plant growth module

1987

R.D. MacElroy, D.T. Smernoff, J. Rummel

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Problems of food production by higher plants are addressed. Experimentation requirements and necessary equipment for designing an experimental Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Plant Growth Module are defined. A framework is provided for the design of laboratory sized plant growth chambers. The rationale for the development of an informal collaborative effort between investigators from universities and industry and those at Ames is evaluated. Specific research problems appropriate for collaborative efforts are identified.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19880004470
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Supercritical fluid extraction and characterization of lipids from algae Scenedesmus obliquus

1987

K.J. Choi,Z. Nakhost,V.J. Krukonis,M. Karel

publication: Food Biotechnology

Abstract

Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC‐CO2) extractions (with and without ethanol as an entrainer) were carried out to remove lipids and pigments from protein concentrate of green algae (Scenedesmus obliquus) cultivated under controlled conditions. The content and fatty acid composition of algal lipids using column, thin‐layer (TLC) and gas‐liquid chromatography (GLC) were determined. Absorption spectra of extracted fractions showed the predominance of chlorophyll A (λmax at 410nm). Single step supercritical carbon dioxide (SC‐CO2) extraction resulted mostly in removal of neutral lipids and a part of glycolipids, but phospholipids were not extracted. Addition of ethanol to SC‐CO2 increased the amount of glycolipids and phospholipids in the extract. TLC pattern of algal lipids showed that the main part of neutral lipids consisted of diglycerides, triglycerides, hydrocarbons, free sterols, and sterol esters. The glycolipids were mostly monogalactosyl diglyceride, digalactosyl diglyceride, esterified sterol glycoside, and sterol glycoside. In phospholipids, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl glycerol, and phosphatidyl ethanolamine were the main compounds. Fatty acid composition patterns indicated the main fatty acids to be 16:0, 16:1, 16:2, 16:3, 16:4, 18:1, 18:2 and 18:3(a). Relatively high recovery of polyunsaturated fatty acids and essential fatty acids in supercritical fluid extracted algal lipids and protein isolates were observed.
doi: 10.1080/08905438709549669 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08905438709549669
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Fundamental study on gas monitoring in CELSS

1987

I. Nishi,T. Tateishi,G. Tomizawa,K. Nitta,M. Oguchi

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

A mass spectrometer and computer system was developed for conducting a fundamental study on gas monitoring in CELSS. Respiration and metabolism of the hamster and photosynthesis of the Spirulina were measured in a combination system consisting of a hamster chamber and a Spirulina cultivator. They are connected through a membrane gas exchanger. Some technical problems were examined.
In the mass spectrometric gas monitoring, a simultaneous multi-sample measurement was developed by employing a rotating exchange valve. Long term precise measurement was obtained by employing an automatic calibration system.
The membrane gas sampling probe proved to be useful for long term measurement. The cultivation rate of the Spirulina was effectively changed by controlling CO2 and light supply. The experimental results are helpful for improving the hamster-spirulina system.

doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90036-6 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117787900366
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Air ion exposure system for plants

1987

R.C. Morrow, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

A system was developed for subjecting plants to elevated air ion levels. This system consisted of a rectangular Plexiglas chamber lined with a Faraday cage. Air ions were generated by corona discharge from frayed stainless steel fibers placed at one end of the chamber. This source was capable of producing varying levels of either positive or negative air ions. During plant exposures, environmental conditions were controlled by operating the unit in a growth chamber.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.22.1.148 pubmed: 11538253 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ina.12729
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A nondestructive development index for strawberry

1987

G.W. Stutte, R.L. Darnell

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Growth curves and a developmental index of fruit length and dry weight were obtained for the cultivar Fern. There was a strong positive correlation between fruit length and the natural logarithm of fruit dry weight. A minimum amount of scatter about the regression line indicated that length may be a useful developmental index. Secondary fruits experienced a 4- to 5-day lag period between pollination and growth, while primary fruits began growing within 24 h after pollination. Primary and secondary fruits exhibited similar relative growth rates once development began.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19870344650
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MELISSA- A microorganisms-based model for CELSS develop

1987

M. Mergeay, W. Verstraete, G. Dubertet, M. Lefort-Tran, C. Chipaux, R. Binot

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Utilization of potatoes for life support systems in space. III. Productivity at successive harvest dates under 12-h and 24-h photoperiods

1987

Raymond M. Wheeler,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: American potato journal

Abstract

Potatoes are among several crops under consideration for use in controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS) being proposed for space colonies. Efficient crop production for such life support systems will require near-optimal growing conditions with harvests taken when production per unit area per unit time is maximum. To determine this maximum for potato, cv. Norland plants were grown in walk-in growth rooms under 12-h and 24-h photoperiods at 16 C and harvested at 42, 63, 84, 105, 126 and 148 days from planting. At 42 days, plants were encaged in wire fence cylinders with a cross-sectional area of 0.2 m2. The dry weights (dwt) of tubers and of the entire plants increased under both photoperiods until the final harvest date (148 days), reaching 572 g tuber dwt and 704 g total dwt under 12-h, and 791 g tuber dwt and 972 g total dwt under 24-h. At a spacing of 0.2 m2 per plant, the 148-day tuber production from plants under continuous light would equate to nearly 40 t ha-1 dry matter (200 t fresh weight), approximately twice that of exceptionally high field yields. Tuber productivity (g m-2 day-1) under the 24-h photoperiod reached a maximum of 29.4 g dwt m-2 day-1 at 126 days, but continued to rise throughout the experiment under the 12-h photoperiod, reaching 19.5 g dwt m-2 day-1 at 14 days, approximately 25 m2 would continuously provide the daily dietary energy requirements for one human.
doi: 10.1007/BF02853523 pubmed: 11539685 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02853523
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A review of recent activities in the NASA CELSS program

1987

R.D. MacElroy,J. Tremor,D.T. Smernoff,W. Knott,R.P. Prince

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A CELSS (Controlled Ecological Life Support System) is a device that utilizes photosynthetic organisms and light energy to regenerate waste materials into oxygen and food for a crew in space. The results of theoretical and practical studies conducted by investigators within the CELSS program suggest that a bioregenerative life support system can be a useful and effective method of regenerating consumable materials for crew sustenance. Experimental data suggests that the operation of a CELSS in space will be practical if plants can be made to behave predictably in the space environment. Much of the work currently conducted within the CELSS program centers on the biological components of the CELSS system. The work is particularly directed at ways of achieving high efficiency and long term stability of all components of the system. Included are explorations of the conversion of non-edible cellulose to edible materials, nitrogen fixation by biological and chemical methods, and methods of waste processing. It is the intent of the presentation to provide a description of the extent to which a bioregenerative life support system can meet the constraints of the space environment, and to assess the degree to which system efficiency and stability can be increased during the next decade.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90032-9 pubmed: 11537270 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117787900329
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Food production and gas exchange system using blue-green alga (Spirulina) for CELSS

1987

Mitsuo Oguchi,Koji Otsubo,Keiji Nitta,Shigeki Hatayama

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

In order to reduce the cultivation area required for the growth of higher plants in space adoption of algae, which have a higher photosynthetic ability, seems very suitable for obtaining oxygen and food as a useful source of high quality protein. The preliminary cultivation experiment for determining optimum cultivation conditions and for obtaining the critical design parameters of the cultivator itself has been conducted. Spirulina was cultivated in the 6-liter medium containing sodium hydrogen carbonate solution and a cultivation temperature controlled using a thermostat. Generated oxygen gas was separated using a polypropyrene porous hollow fiber membrane module. Through this experiment, oxygen gas (at a concentration of more than 46%) at a rate of 100-150 ml per minute could be obtained.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90026-3 pubmed: 11537273 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117787900263
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Lipid content and fatty acid composition of green algae Scenedesmus obliquus grown in a constant cell density apparatus

1987

K.J. Choi,Z. Nakhost,E. Barzana,M. Karel

publication: Food biotechnology

Abstract

The lipids of alga Scenedesmus obliquus grown under controlled conditions were separated and fractionated by column and thin-layer chromatography, and fatty acid composition of each lipid component was studied by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC). Total lipids were 11.17%, and neutral lipid, glycolipid and phospholipid fractions were 7.24%, 2.45% and 1.48% on a dry weight basis, respectively. The major neutral lipids were diglycerides, triglycerides, free sterols, hydrocarbons and sterol esters. The glycolipids were: monogalactosyl diglyceride, digalactosyl diglyceride, esterified sterol glycoside, and sterol glycoside. The phospholipids included: phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl glycerol and phosphatidyl ethanolamine. Fourteen fatty acids were identified in the four lipid fractions by GLC. The main fatty acids were C18:2, C16:0, C18:3(alpha), C18:1, C16:3, C16:1, and C16:4. Total unsaturated fatty acid and essential fatty acid compositions of the total algal lipids were 80% and 38%, respectively.
doi: 10.1080/08905438709549660 pubmed: 11539709 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08905438709549660
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The role of plant pathology in development of Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems

1987

B. Nelson

publication: Plant disease

Abstract

The exploration and utilization of the space frontier is one of the most challenging of human adventures. The engineering sophistication of the manned space programs of the United States and the Soviet Union has now made it possibte for humans to plan Tor a permanent presence in space. The United States is finaly committed to a manned space program. President Reagan in his State of the Union message in 1984 stated that the United States wilI proceed with the development of a permanent space station to begin initial operation in 1994. The National Commission on Space. charged by the president and Congress to propose civilian space goals for 2lst century America, recently completed a report titled Pioneering the Space Frontier, which is a critical evaluation of our next 50 years in space (16). The report outlines a program that will result in a network of spaceports between Earth. the moon, and Mars, with permanent bases on the moon and Mars. The commission foresees vast expansion in space travel and commercial development in the 21st century. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Congress. and the president have reiterated their commitment to construction of a space station (Fig. I) and a vigorous space program following the loss of the space shuttle Challenger in 1986. Possibly within a decade the first permanent presence of Americans in space will begin.
link: https://www.apsnet.org/publications/plantdisease/backissues/Documents/1987Articles/PlantDisease71...
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Sunlight supply and gas exchange systems in microalgal bioreactor

1987

K. Mori,H. Ohya,K. Matsumoto,H. Furune

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The bioreactor with sunlight supply system and gas exchange systems presented here has proved feasible in ground tests and shows much promise for space use as a CELSS device. Our chief conclusions concerning the specification of total system needed for a life support system for a man in a space station are the following. (1) Sunlight supply system: compactness and low electrical consumption. (2) Bioreactor system: high density and growth rate of chlorella. (3) Gas exchange system: enough for O2 production and CO2 assimilation.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90031-7 pubmed: 11537269 link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19880002876
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Comparative induction of nitrate reductase by nitrate and nitrite in barely leaves

1987

M. Aslam, J.L. Rosichan, R. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The comparative induction of nitrate reductase (NR) by ambient NO3- and NO2- as a function of influx, reduction (as NR was induced) and accumulation in detached leaves of 8-day-old barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seedlings was determined. The dynamic interaction of NO3- influx, reduction and accumulation on NR induction was shown. The activity of NR, as it was induced, influenced its further induction by affecting the internal concentration of NO3-. As the ambient concentration of NO3- increased, the relative influences imposed by influx and reduction on NO3- accumulation changed with influx becoming a more predominant regulant. Significant levels of NO3- accumulated in NO2(-)-fed leaves. When the leaves were supplied cycloheximide or tungstate along with NO2-, about 60% more NO3- accumulated in the leaves than in the absence of the inhibitors. In NO3(-)-supplied leaves NR induction was observed at an ambient concentration of as low as 0.02 mM. No NR induction occurred in leaves supplied with NO2- until the ambient NO2- concentration was 0.5 mM. In fact, NR induction from NO2- solutions was not seen until NO3- was detected in the leaves. The amount of NO3- accumulating in NO2(-)-fed leaves induced similar levels of NR as did equivalent amounts of NO3- accumulating from NO3(-)-fed leaves. In all cases the internal concentration of NO3-, but not NO2-, was highly correlated with the amount of NR induced. The evidence indicated that NO3- was a more likely inducer of NR than was NO2-.
doi: 10.1104/pp.83.3.579 pubmed: 11539032 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/83/3/579/6084623
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Operation of an experimental algal gas exchanger for use in a CELSS

1987

David T. Smernoff,Robert A. Wharton,Maurice M. Averner

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Concepts of a CELSS anticipate the use of photosynthetic organisms (higher plants and algae) for air revitalization. The rates of production and uptake of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the crew and the photosynthetic organisms are mismatched. An algal [correction of aglal] system used for gas exchange only will have the difficulty of an accumulation or depletion of these gases beyond physiologically tolerable limits (in a materially closed system the mismatch between assimilatory quotient (AQ) and respiratory quotient (RQ) will be balanced by the operation of the waste processor). We report the results of a study designed to test the feasibility of using environmental manipulations to maintain physiologically appropriate atmospheres for algae (Chlorella pyrenoidosa) and mice (Mus musculus strain DW/J) in a gas-closed system. Specifically, we consider the atmosphere behavior of this system with Chlorella grown on nitrate or urea and at different light intensities and optical densities. Manipulation of both the photosynthetic rate and AQ of the alga has been found to reduce the mismatch of gas requirements and allow operation of the system in a gas-stable manner. Operation of such a system in a CELSS may be useful for reduction of buffer sizes, as a backup system for higher plant air revitalization and to supply extra oxygen to the waste processor or during crew changes. In addition, mass balance for components of the system (mouse, algae and a waste processor) are presented.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90028-7 pubmed: 11537265 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117787900287
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Utilization of potatoes in bioregenerative life support systems

1987

T.W. Tibbitts,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Data on the tuberization, harvest index, and morphology of 2 cvs of white potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) grown at 12, 16, 20, 24 and 28 degrees C, 250, 400 and 550 micromoles s-1 m-2 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), 350, 1000 and 1600 microliters l-1 CO2 will be presented. A productivity of 21.9 g m-2 day-1 of edible tubers from a solid stand of potatoes grown for 15 weeks with continuous irradiation at 400 micromoles s-1 m-2, 16 degrees C and 1000 microliters l-1 CO2 has been obtained. This equates to an area of 34.3 m2 being required to provide 2800 kcal of potatoes per day for a human diet. Separated plants receiving side lighting have produced 32.8 g m-2 day-1 which equates to an area of 23.6 m2 to provide 2800 kcal. Studies with side lighting indicate that productivities in this range should be realized from potatoes. Glycoalkaloid levels in tubers of controlled-environment-grown plants are within the range of levels found in tubers of field grown plants. The use and limitation of recirculating solution cultures for potato growth is discussed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90042-1 pubmed: 11537260 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117787900421
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A modular BLSS simulation model

1987

John D. Rummel,Tyler Volk

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The coordination of material flows in Earth's biosphere is largely made possible by the buffering effect of huge material reservoirs. Without similarly-sized buffers, a bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) for extraterrestrial use will be faced with coordination problems more acute than those in any ecosystem found on earth. A related problem is BLSS design is providing an interface between the various life-support processors, one that will allow for their coordination while still allowing for system expansion. Here we present a modular model of a BLSS that interfaces system processors only with the material storage reservoirs, allowing those reservoirs to act as the principal buffers in the system and thus minimizing difficulties with processor coordination. The modular nature of the model allows independent development of the detailed submodels that exist within the model framework. Using this model, BLSS dynamics were investigated under normal conditions and under various failure modes. Partial and complete failures of various components, such as the waste processor or the plants themselves, drive transient responses in the model system, allowing us to examine the effectiveness of the system reservoirs as buffers. The results from simulations of this sort will help to determine control strategies and BLSS design requirements. An evolved version of this model could be used as an interactive control aid in a future BLSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(87)90033-0 pubmed: 11537271 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117787900330
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Wheat response to CO2 enrichment: Growth and CO2 exchanges at two plant densities

1987

H. C. DU CLOUX,M. ANDRÉ,A. DAGUENET,J. MASSIMINO

publication: Journal of Experimental Botany

Abstract

The vegetative growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum L., var. Capitole) was followed for almost 40 d after germination in controlled conditions. Four different treatments were carried out by combining two air concentrations of CO2, either normal (330 mm3 dm ⊟3) or doubled (660 mm3 dm ⊟3) with two plant densities, either 200 plants m ⊟2 or 40 plants m ⊟2. Throughout the experiment the CO2 gas exchanges of each canopy were measured 24 h d⊟1. These provided a continuous growth curve for each treatment, which were compared with dry weights. After a small stimulation at the start (first 13 d), no further effect of CO2 enrichment was observed on relative growth rate (RGR). However, RGR was stimulated throughout the experiment when plotted as a function of biomass. The final stimulation ol dry weight at 660 mm3 dm ⊟3 CO2 was a factor of 1·45 at high density and 1·50 at low density, contrary to other studies, no diminution of this CO2 effect on dry weight was observed over time. Nevertheless, at low density, a transient additional enhancement of biomass (up to 1·70) was obtained at a leaf area index (LAI) below 1. This effect was attributed to a different build up of the gain of carbon in the case of an isolated plant or a closed canopy. In the former, the stimulation of leaf area and the net assimilation rate are both involved; in the latter the enhancement becomes independent of the effect on leaf area because the canopy photosynthesis per unit ground area as a function of LAI reaches a plateau.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/38.9.1421 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/38/9/1421/436897
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Irradiance and spectral distribution control system for controlled environment chambers

1987

M.J. Krones, J.C. Sager, A.T. Johnson

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

This paper describes a closed-loop control system for controlling the irradiance and spectral quality generated by fluorescent lamps in a controlled environment chamber. The 400 to 800 nm irradiance and the ratio of the red waveband (600 to 700 nm) to the far-red waveband (700 to 800 nm) were independently controlled and varied as functions of time. A suggested application is to investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of changing irradiance levels and changing spectral distributions on photoperiodism and photomorphogenesis.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.22.3.501 pubmed: 11538252 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/22/3/article-p501.xml
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Effect of salicylhydroxamic acid on endosperm strength and embryo growth of Lactuca sativa L. cv

1988

Carolyn Anne Brooks,Cary Arthur Mitchell

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM) stimulated germination of photosensitive lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv Waldmann's Green) seeds in darkness. To determine whether SHAM acts on the embryo or the endosperm, we investigated separately effects of SHAM on growth potential of isolated embryos as well as on endosperm strength. Embryo growth potential was quantified by incubating decoated embryos in various concentrations of osmoticum and measuring subsequent radicle elongation. Growth potential of embryos isolated from seeds pretreated with 4 millimolar SHAM was equal to that of untreated controls. Rupture strength of endosperm tissue excised from seeds pretreated with SHAM was 33% less than that of controls in the micropylar region. To determine if the embryo must be in contact with the endosperm of SHAM to weaken the endosperm, some endosperms were incubated with SHAM only after dissection from seeds. Rupture strength of SHAM-treated, isolated endosperms in the micropylar region was 25% less than that of untreated controls. There was no difference in rupture strength in the cotyledonary region of endosperm isolated from seeds treated with SHAM in buffer or buffer alone. SHAM therefore stimulates germination not by enhancing embryo growth potential, but by weakening the micropylar region of the endosperm enclosing the embryo.
doi: 10.1104/pp.86.3.826 pubmed: 11538237 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/86/3/826/6082941
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Exploring the limits of crop productivity. Photosynthetic efficiency of wheat in high irradiance environments

1988

Bruce G. Bugbee,Frank B. Salisbury

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The long-term vegetative and reproductive growth rates of a wheat crop (Triticum aestivum L.) were determined in three separate studies (24, 45, and 79 days) in response to a wide range of photosynthetic photon fluxes (PPF, 400-2080 micromoles per square meter per second; 22-150 moles per square meter per day; 16-20 hour photoperiod) in a near-optimum, controlled-environment. The CO2 concentration was elevated to 1200 micromoles per mole, and water and nutrients were supplied by liquid hydroponic culture. An unusually high plant density (2000 plants per square meter) was used to obtain high yields. Crop growth rate and grain yield reached 138 and 60 grams per square meter per day, respectively; both continued to increase up to the highest integrated daily PPF level, which was three times greater than a typical daily flux in the field. The conversion efficiency of photosynthesis (energy in biomass/energy in photosynthetic photons) was over 10% at low PPF but decreased to 7% as PPF increased. Harvest index increased from 41 to 44% as PPF increased. Yield components for primary, secondary, and tertiary culms were analyzed separately. Tillering produced up to 7000 heads per square meter at the highest PPF level. Primary and secondary culms were 10% more efficient (higher harvest index) than tertiary culms; hence cultural, environmental, or genetic changes that increase the percentage of primary and secondary culms might increase harvest index and thus grain yield. Wheat is physiologically and genetically capable of much higher productivity and photosynthetic efficiency than has been recorded in a field environment.
doi: 10.1104/pp.88.3.869 pubmed: 11537442 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/88/3/869/6083363
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Optimizing crop production environments for a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) to be deployed in space

1988

None

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Space farming in the 21st century. 21st Century Sci

1988

F.B. Salisbury, B. Bugbee

publication: 21st century science & technology
pubmed: 11539083
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Greenhouses and green chess: Use of Lunar resources in CELSS development

1988

S.H. Schwartzkopf, D.G. Kane, R.L. Stempson

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

This paper describes the major lunar resources that would be tapped in developing a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) greenhouse for a manned lunar base. The use of the moon's gravitational field, natural sunlight, and mineral resources from the lunar surface are discussed. Lunar soil processing technologies with CELSS relevance, and their contributions to greenhouse development are presented.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44470343
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[citation] CELSS atmospheric control system

1988

J.C. Sager, C.R. Hargrove, R.P. Prince, W.M. Knott

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CELSS for advanced manned mission

1988

R.L. Olson, M.W. Oleson, T.J. Slavin

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

An overview of the major concepts of Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) includes an identification of environmental factors, such as gravity levels, light levels, and growth volume, that influence the type of CELSS system that can be developed. Various plant growth systems are described together with their possible space applications. Life support functions performed by plants include food production, atmosphere regeneration, and water purification. Selected relationships between biological and physical-chemical life support techniques are considered as a part of these functions. Consumers in a CELSS may be humans, animals, or microorganisms, but nutritional, water, and atmosphere requirements of humans are emphasized in this report, as they are the primary requirement drivers for a CELSS design. The human role in waste generation is discussed as it affects plant nutrient availability. The role of waste management systems in recovering nutrients for plant growth and requirements for CELSS are defined for air, water, and food. Both physical and a biological nutrient recovery/waste disposal systems are examined. The separate subsystems of a CELSS are identified and discussed. Nutrient recovery, plant irradiation, automation, and facilities equipment and applications are reviewed with special attention to direct solar irradiation using fiber optics. These subsystems, along with other environmental control systems, such as thermal, humidity, and ventilation, are essential to plant growth in the space environment.
pubmed: 11537756 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11537756
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Use of response surface methodology to model the effects of light, carbon dioxide, and temperature on the growth of potato

1988

B.S. Yandell, A. Najar, R.M. Wheeler, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Crop science

Abstract

This study examined the effects of light, temperature and carbon dioxide on the growth of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) in a controlled environment in order to ascertain the best growing conditions for potato in life support systems in space. ‘Norland’ and ‘Russet Burbank’ were grown in 6-L pots of peat-vermiculite for 56 d in growth chambers at the University of Wisconsin Biotron. Environmental factor levels included continuous light (24-h photoperiod) at 250, 400, and 550 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF; constant temperature at 16, 20, and 24 °C; and CO2 at approximately 400, 1000 and 1600 μL L−1. Separate effects analysis and ridge analysis provided a means to examine the effects of individual environmental factors and to determine combinations of factors that are expected to give the best increases in yields over the central design point. The response surface of Norland indicated that tuber yields were highest with moderately low temperature (18.7 °C), low CO2 (400 μL L−1) and high light (550 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF). These conditions also favored shorter stem growth. Russet Burbank tuber yields were highest at moderately low temperature (17.5 °C), high CO, (1600 μL L−1) and medium light (455 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF). Models generated from these analyses will be used to project the most efficient conditions for growth of potatoes in closed ecological life support systems (CELSS) in space colonies.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1988.0011183X002800050019x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1988.0011183X002800050019x
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Approaching the photosynthetic limits of crop productivity

1988

F.B. Salisbury

publication: Executive intelligence review

Abstract

Just how much could a crop produce if all the environmental parameters were set at optimal levels so productivity was limited only by the plant's genetic potential? This question has interested plant physiologists... agriculturists, and ecolo gists almost from the time these sciences came into being. Although no one has tried to answer the complete question, agricultural productivity has increased tremendously during the past century as parts of the question were at least partially answered. Almost a century and a half ago, Justus von Liebig
pubmed: 11539767 link: https://againstsatanism.com/External-Websites/A-larouche/larouchepub.com/eiw/public/1988/eirv15n4...
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Plant productivity in controlled environments

1988

Evangelos D. Leonardos,Bernard Grodzinski

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Photosynthetic efficiency and phytochrome photoequilibria determination using spectral data

1988

J.C. Sager, W.O. Smith, J.L. Edwards, K.L. Cyr

publication: Transactions of the ASAE.

Abstract

SPECTRAL data provides the information to quantify the photosynthetic and morphogenic responses of plants to a specific radiation environment. The mathematical products of spectral data with photosynthetic quantum yield and phytochrome photochemical cross-sections were used as indicators of the photosynthetic efficiency and phytochrome photostationary state determined by a radiation source.
doi: 10.13031/2013.30952 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=30952
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Cyclic variations in nitrogen uptake rate of soybean plants: Effects of external nitrate concentration

1988

LESLIE TOLLEY-HENRY,C. DAVID RAPER,TOM C. GRANATO

publication: Journal of experimental botany

Abstract

Net uptake of NO3- by non-nodulated soybean plants [Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. Ransom] growing in flowing hydroponic cultures containing 0.5, 1.0 and 10.0 mol m-3 NO3- was measured daily during a 24-d period of vegetative development to determine if amplitude of maximum and minimum rates of net NO3- uptake are responsive to external concentrations of NO3-. Removal of NO3- from the replenished solutions during each 24-h period was determined by ion chromatography. Neither dry matter accumulation nor the periodicity of oscillations in net uptake rate was altered by the external NO3- concentrations. The maxima of the oscillations in net uptake rate, however, increased nearly 3-fold in response to external NO3- concentrations. The maxima and minima, respectively, changed from 4.0 and 0.6 mmol NO3- per gram root dry weight per day at an external solution level of 0.5 mol m-3 NO3- to 15.2 and -2.7 mmol NO3- per gram root dry weight per day at an external solution level of 10.0 mol m-3 NO3-. The negative values for minimum net uptake rate from 10.0 mol m-3 NO3- solutions show that net efflux was occurring and indicate that the magnitude of the efflux component of net uptake was responsive to external concentration of NO3-.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/39.5.613 pubmed: 11538214 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/39/5/613/441505
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Cultural systems for growing potatoes in space

1988

T. Tibbitts,R. Bula,R. Corey,R. Morrow

publication: Symposium on High Technology in Protected Cultivation

Abstract

Higher plants are being evaluated for life support to provide needed food, oxygen and water as well as removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The successful utilization of plants in space will require the development of not only highly productive growing systems but also highly efficient bioregenerative systems. It will be necessary to recycle all inedible plant parts and all human wastes so that the entire complement of elemental compounds can be reused. Potatoes have been proposed as one of the desirable crops because they are 1) extremely productive, yielding more than 100 metric tons per hectare from field plantings, 2) the edible tubers are high in digestible starch (70%) and protein (10%) on a dry weight basis, 3) up to 80% of the total plant production is in tubers and thus edible, 4) the plants are easily propagated either from tubers or from tissue culture plantlets, 5) the tubers can be utilized with a minimum of processing, and 6) potatoes can be prepared in a variety of different forms for the human diet (Tibbitts et al., 1982).
However potatoes have a growth pattern that complicates the development of growing the plants in controlled systems. Tubers are borne on underground stems that are botanically termed 'rhizomes', but in common usage termed 'stolons'. The stolons must be maintained in a dark, moist area with sufficient provision for enlargement of tubers. Stems rapidly terminate in flowers forcing extensive branching and spreading of plants so that individual plants will cover 0.2 m2 or more area. Thus the growing system must be developed to provide an area that is darkened for tuber and root growth and of sufficient size for plant spread.
A system developed for growing potatoes, or any plants, in space will have certain requirements that must be met to make them a useful part of a life support system.
The system must 1) be constructed of materials, and involve media, that can be reused for many successive cycles of plant growth, 2) involve a minimum quantity of media, 3) contain media that is essentially inert and not oxidize or degrade with use, 4) utilize a recirculating nutrient solution to permit regulation of pH and nutrient concentrations, and 5) be capable of complete automation of all planting, maintenance and harvesting procedures.

doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1988.230.36 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/230/230_36.htm
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Extraterrestrial habitats and food support systems

1988

M.H. Jensen

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Nitrogen uptake by wheat seedlings, interactive effects of four nitrogen sources: NO3 -, NO2 -, NH4 + and urea

1988

Richard S. Criddle,Michael R. Ward,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The net influx (uptake) rates of NO3-, NH4+, NO2-, and urea into roots of wheat (Triticum aestivum cv Yecora Rojo) seedlings from complete nutrient solutions containing all four compounds were monitored simultaneously. Although urea uptake was too slow to monitor, its presence had major inhibitory effects on the uptake of each of the other compounds. Rates of NO3-, NH4+, and NO2- uptake depended in a complex fashion on the concentration of all four N compounds. Equations were developed which describe the uptake rates of each of the compounds, and of total N, as functions of concentrations of all N sources. Contour plots of the results show the interactions over the range of concentrations employed. The coefficients of these equations provide quantitative values for evaluating primary and interactive effects of each compound on N uptake.
doi: 10.1104/pp.86.1.166 pubmed: 11538231 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/86/1/166/6082902
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Growth and yield characteristics of ‘Waldmann’s Green’ leaf lettuce under different photon fluxes from metal halide or incandescent + fluorescent radiation

1988

Sharon L. Knight,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Scientia horticulturae

Abstract

'Waldmann's Green' leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was grown either under 84% irradiance from incandescent (In) + 16% from fluorescence (Fl) lamps, or 100% from metal halide (MH) lamps, both at 392 micromoles s-1 m-2 of photosynthetically active radiation (400-700 nm) from 11 to 19 days after seeding. No differences in leaf dry weight, leaf area, relative growth rate (RGR) or photosynthesis (Pn) occurred after 8 days of exposure to these radiation treatments for 20 h day-1. However, a 23% reduction in root dry weight, a 123% increase in stem length and a 61% increase in stem dry weight were found with In + Fl relative to MH radiation. A photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 920 micromoles s-1 m-2 from the In + Fl source increased leaf dry weight by 13% and RGR by 21% relative to those at 460 micromoles s-1 m-2 from the same source. From 4 to 8 days of treatment, high PPF did not lower shoot dry gain, but did lower RGR. Photosynthesis and net assimilation rate were lower while leaf area ratio was higher at 460 than at 920 micromoles s-1 m-2 over the 8-day treatment period. When PPF from MH lamps was 400 micromoles s-1 m-2, leaf dry weight was 20% greater than if PPF was 805 micromoles s-1 m-2 after 4 days of treatment, but no differences were detected after 8 days. Relative growth rate increased by 11% during the first 4 days, but declined by 12% during the second 4 days under high- relative to low-PPF MH radiation. Lettuce productivity was stimulated by high PPF from either lamp type from Day 11 to Day 14, but not from Day 15 to Day 19 after seeding.
doi: 10.1016/0304-4238(88)90036-2 pubmed: 11539046 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304423888900362
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Utilization of potatoes for life support systems in space

1988

R. M. Wheeler,T. W. Tibbitts

publication: American potato journal

Abstract

The productive potential of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L. cvs. Norland, Superior, Norchip, and Kennebec) was assessed for life support systems being proposed for space stations and/or lunar colonies. Plants were grown in walk-in growth rooms for 15 weeks at 20 C under 12-, 16- and 20-h photoperiods of 400 μmol mt-2st-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF). Norland yielded the greatest tuber fresh weight, producing 2.3, 2.4, and 2.9 kg/plant under 12-, 16-, and 20-h photoperiods, respectively. The respective yields for the other cultivars under 12-, 16-, and 20-h were: Superior, 1.9, 1.5, and 1.8 kg/plant; Norchip, 1.8, 1.4, and 2.0 kg/plant; and Kennebec, 2.3, 0.2, and 0.8 kg/plant. Shoot and total plant biomass increased with lengthening photoperiods except for Kennebec, which showed increased shoot growth but no change in total growth with the longer photoperiods. Kennebec shoot growth under the 20-h photoperiod, and to some extent under 16-h, was noticeably stunted with shortened internodes. In addition, leaves of these plants showed mild chlorosis with rusty “flecking” of the surfaces. The harvest index (ratio of tuber yield/total biomass) was highest for all cultivars under the 12-h photoperiod, with a maximum of 0.69 for Norland. Similarly, the tuber yield per input of irradiant energy also was highest under 12-h for all cultivars. The tuber yield expressed on an area basis for the highest yielding treatment (Norland under 20-h) equaled 2.2 kg dry matter m^t-2. Over 15 weeks this equates to a productivity of 20.7 g tuber dry matter m^t-2 day^t-1. Assuming 3.73 kcal per g tuber dry matter and a daily human dietary requirement of 2800 kcal, then 36 m2 of potatoes could supply the daily energy requirement for one human. Potential for increasing productivity is discussed.
link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02854441
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Gas exchange and nutrition patterns during the life cycle of an artificial wheat crop

1988

Alain Gerbaud,Marcel Andreè,Christiane Richaud

publication: Physiologia Plantarum

Abstract

The growth, mineral and shoot and root CO2 exchange of wheat plants (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Courtot) cultivated in growth chambers have been studied during the complete life cycle. The life cycle could be divided into 4 periods according to the patterns of CO2 exchange: exponential increase, linear increase, stabilization and decline of photosynthesis. These patterns are analysed in relation to light interception, tillering, competition between plants and ageing of the leaves, all of which constitute successive limiting factors. Root metabolism seemed to be subordinated to the demand of the shoot for minerals. Ion uptake from the nutrient solution was particularly pronounced in young plants, which were higher in minerals and nitrogen than older ones. The ratios of K and P uptake varied with plant age, and the charge balance in ion exchange was equlibrated by H uptake. Rhythmic patterns appeared in all exchanges and varied with plant age. The highest amplitude of rhythm was found in root respiration. After taking the losses due to respiration and photorespiration into account, the maximum rate of photosynthesis approached the theoretical value calculated from the light energy absorbed.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1988.tb05428.x link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1988.tb05428.x
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Growth and mitochondrial respiration of mungbeans (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) germinated at low pressure

1988

Mary E. Musgrave,Wayne A. Gerth,H. William Scheld,Boyd R. Strain

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Mungbean (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) seedlings were grown hypobarically to assess the effects of low pressure (21-24 kilopascals) on growth and mitochondrial respiration. Control seedlings grown at ambient pressure (101 kilopascals) were provided amounts of O2 equivalent to those provided experimental seedlings at reduced pressure to factor out responses to O2 concentration and to total pressure. Respiration was assayed using washed mitochondria, and was found to respond only to O2 concentration. Regardless of total pressure, seedlings grown at 2 millimoles O2 per liter had higher state 3 respiration rates and decreased percentages of alternative respiration compared to ambient (8.4 millimoles O2 per liter) controls. In contrast, seedling growth responded to total pressure but not to O2 concentration. Seedlings were significantly larger when grown under low pressure. While low O2 (2 millimoles O2 per liter) diminished growth at ambient pressure, growth at low pressure in the same oxygen concentration was enhanced. Respiratory development and growth of mungbean seedlings under low pressure is unimpaired whether oxygen or air is used as the chamber gas, and further, low pressure can improve growth under conditions of poor aeration.
doi: 10.1104/pp.86.1.19 pubmed: 11538232 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/86/1/19/6083001
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Inhibition of nitrate transport by anti-nitrate reductase IgG fragments and the identification of plasma membrane associated nitrate reductase in roots of barley seedlings

1988

Michael R. Ward,Rudolf Tischner,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Membrane associated nitrate reductase (NR) was detected in plasma membrane (PM) fractions isolated by aqueous two-phase partitioning from barley (Hordeum vulgare L. var CM 72) roots. The PM associated NR was not removed by washing vesicles with 500 millimolar NaCl and 1 millimolar EDTA and represented up to 4% of the total root NR activity. PM associated NR was stimulated up to 20-fold by Triton X-100 whereas soluble NR was only increased 1.7-fold. The latency was a function of the solubilization of NR from the membrane. NR, solubilized from the PM fraction by Triton X-100 was inactivated by antiserum to Chlorella sorokiniana NR. Anti-NR immunoglobulin G fragments purified from the anti-NR serum inhibited NO3- uptake by more than 90% but had no effect on NO2- uptake. The inhibitory effect was only partially reversible; uptake recovered to 50% of the control after thorough rinsing of roots. Preimmune serum immunoglobulin G fragments inhibited NO3- uptake 36% but the effect was completely reversible by rinsing. Intact NR antiserum had no effect on NO3- uptake. The results present the possibility that NO3- uptake and NO3- reduction in the PM of barley roots may be related.
doi: 10.1104/pp.88.4.1141 pubmed: 11537434 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/88/4/1141/6084939
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Evidence for involvement of phytochrome in tumor development on plants

1988

Robert C. Morrow,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The regulation of nonpathogenic tumorous growths on tomato plants by red and far-red radiation was studied using leaf discs floated on water and irradiated from beneath. It was found that red light (600-700 nanometers) was required for the induction of tumors on tomato (Lycopersicon hirsutum Humb. & Bonpl. Plant Introduction LA 1625), while both blue (400-500 nanometers) and green (500-600 nanometers) light had little effect on tumor development. Detailed studies with red light demonstrated that tumor development increased with increasing photon flux and duration, though duration was the more significant factor. It was observed that tumor development could be prevented by the addition of far-red irradiance to red irradiance or by providing far-red irradiance immediately following red irradiance. The effectiveness of red and far-red irradiance in the regulation of tumor development indicates phytochrome involvement in this response. These findings should provide additional insight into the multiplicity of physiological factors regulating the development of nonpathogenic tumorous growths in plants.
doi: 10.1104/pp.88.4.1110 pubmed: 11537433 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/88/4/1110/6084849
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Characterization and subcellular localization of aminopeptidases in senescing barley leaves

1988

S. S. Thayer,H. T. Choe,S. Rausser,R. C. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Four aminopeptidases (APs) were separated using native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of cell-free extracts and the stromal fractions of isolated chloroplasts prepared from primary barley (Hordeum vulgare L., var Numar) leaves. Activities were identified using a series of aminoacyl-beta-naphthylamide derivatives as substrates. AP1, 2, and 3 were found in the stromal fraction of isolated chloroplasts with respective molecular masses of 66.7, 56.5, and 54.6 kilodaltons. AP4 was found only in the cytoplasmic fraction. No AP activity was found in vacuoles of these leaves. It was found that 50% of the L-Leu-beta-naphthylamide and 25% of the L-Arg-beta-naphthylamide activities were localized in the chloroplasts. Several AP activities were associated with the membranes of the thylakoid fraction of isolated chloroplasts. AP1, 2, and 4 reacted against a broad range of substrates, whereas AP3 hydrolyzed only L-Arg-beta-naphthylamide. Only AP2 hydrolyzed L-Val-beta-naphthylamide. Since AP2 and AP3 were the only ones reacting against Val-beta-naphthylamide and Arg-beta-naphthylamide, respectively, several protease inhibitors were tested against these substrates using a stromal fraction from isolated chloroplasts as the source of the two APs. Both APs were sensitive to both metallo and sulfhydryl type inhibitors. Although AP activity decreased as leaves senesced, no new APs appeared on gels during senescence and none disappeared.
doi: 10.1104/pp.87.4.894 pubmed: 11537879 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/87/4/894/6084133
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Characteristics of injury and recovery of net NO3 - transport of barley seedlings from treatments of NaCl

1988

Grazyna Klobus,Michael R. Ward,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The nature of the injury and recovery of nitrate uptake (net uptake) from NaCl stress in young barley (Hordeum vulgare L, var CM 72) seedlings was investigated. Nitrate uptake was inhibited rapidly by NaCl, within 1 minute after exposure to 200 millimolar NaCl. The duration of exposure to saline conditions determined the time of recovery of NO3- uptake from NaCl stress. Recovery was dependent on the presence of NO3- and was inhibited by cycloheximide, 6-methylpurine, and cerulenin, respective inhibitors of protein, RNA, and sterol/fatty acid synthesis. These inhibitors also prevented the induction of the NO3- uptake system in uninduced seedlings. Uninduced seedlings exhibited endogenous NO3- transport activity that appeared to be constitutive. This constitutive activity was also inhibited by NaCl. Recovery of constitutive NO3- uptake did not require the presence of NO3-.
doi: 10.1104/pp.87.4.878 pubmed: 11537878 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/87/4/878/6084130
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Uniformity of environmental conditions and plant growth in a hydroponic culture system for use in a growth room with aerial carbon dioxide control

1988

J.D. Vessey, E.K. York, L.T. Henry, C.D. Raper.

publication: Biotronics

Abstract

A portable system of hydroponic culture was developed that maintained temperature, pH, and nutrient concentrations of circulating nutrient solutions. The hydroponic system is used within a controlled-environment room (CER) for control of aerial environment. The CER was equipped with an auto-calibrating system for atmospheric CO2 control. The control systems for the hydroponic chambers were able to maintain acidity within +/- 0.2 pH units and the temperature with +/- 0.5 degree C. Mixing time for the 200-liter volume of solution within a hydroponic chamber was less than 12 min. The CO2 control system was able to maintain aerial concentrations within +/- 10 ppm CO2 during the light period. The only gradient found to occur within the hydroponic chambers or CER was a slight gradient in aerial temperature along the length of hydroponic chambers. Growth of soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] was characterized during a 3-week period of vegetative development by leaf number and area, plant dry weight, total N content of plants, and N depletion from the nutrient solution. The growth characteristics among populations for three hydroponic chambers within the CER were not significantly different, and the percent standard errors of means of the measurements within populations from each chamber were nearly all less than 10%. Thus, the uniformity of plant growth reflected the uniformity of environmental conditions.
pubmed: 11537744 link: https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ja/recordID/8146/?repository=yes
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Effects of CO2 and photosynthetic photon flux on yield, gas exchange and growth rate of Lactuca sativa L

1988

SHARON L. KNIGHT,CARY A. MITCHELL

publication: Journal of experimental botany

Abstract

Knight, S. L. and Mitchell, C. A. 1988. Effects of CO2 and photosynthetic photon flux on yield, gas exchange and growth rate of Lactuca sativa L. ‘Waldmann’s Green'.—J. exp. Bot. 39: 317–328.
Enrichment of CO2 to 46 mmol m−3 (1 000 mm3 dm−3) at a moderate photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 450 μmol m−2 s−1 stimulated fresh and dry weight gain of lettuce leaves 39% to 75% relative to plants at 16 mmol m−3 CO2 (350 mm3 dm−3). Relative growth rate (RGR) was stimulated only during the first several days of exponential growth. Elevating CO2 above 46 mmol m−3 at moderate PPF had no further benefit. However, high PPF of 880–900 μmol m−2 s−1 gave further, substantial increases in growth, RGR, net assimilation rate (NAR) and photosynthetic rate (Pn), but a decrease in leaf area ratio (LAR), at 46 or 69 mmol m−3 (1000 or 1500 mm3 dm−3) CO2, the differences being greater at the higher CO2 level. Enrichment of CO2 to a supraoptimal level of 92 mmol m−3 (2000 mm3 dm−3) at high PPF increased leaf area and LAR, decreased specific leaf weight, NAR and Pn and had no effect on leaf, stem and root dry weight or RGR relative to plants grown at 69 mmol m−3 CO2 after 8 d of treatment. The results of the study indicate that leaf lettuce growth is most responsive to a combination of high PPF and CO2 enrichment to 69 mmol m−3 for several days at the onset of exponential growth, after which optimizing resources might be conserved.

doi: 10.1093/jxb/39.3.317 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/39/3/317/498503
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Comparison of axillary bud growth and patatin accumulation in potato leaf cuttings as assays for tuber induction

1988

RAYMOND M. WHEELER,DAVID J. HANNAPEL,THEODORE W. TIBBITTS

publication: Annals of botany

Abstract

Single-node leaf cuttings from potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) cvs. Norland, Superior, Norchip, and Kennebec, were used to assess tuber induction in plants grown under 12, 16, and 20 h daily irradiation (400 micromol s-1 m-2 PPF). Leaf cuttings were taken from plants at four, six and 15 weeks after planting and cultured for 14 d in sand trays in humid environments. Tuber induction was determined by visually rating the type of growth at the attached axillary bud, and by measuring the accumulation of the major tuber protein, patatin, in the base of the petioles. Axillary buds from leaf cuttings of plants grown under the 12 h photoperiod consistently formed round, sessile tubers at the axils for all four cultivars at all harvests. Buds from cuttings of plants grown under the 16 and 20 h photoperiods exhibited mixed tuber, stolon, and leafy shoot growth. Patatin accumulation was highest in petioles of cuttings taken from 12 h plants for all cultivars at all harvests, with levels in 16 and 20 h cuttings approx. one-half that of the 12 h cuttings. Trends, both in visual ratings of axillary buds and in petiole patatin accumulation, followed the harvest index (ratio of tuber to total plant dry matter), suggesting that either method is an acceptable assay for tuber induction in the potato.
doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a087632 pubmed: 11538857 link: https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-abstract/62/1/25/151500
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Challenges to plant growing in space

1988

R.W. Langhans, D.R. Dreesen

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Picture yourself a million miles from earth; it's lunch time. What will you eat: meat, fish, bread, fresh vegetables (cooked or uncooked), or food from a tube? What will happen to the waste products from the processed food or even from yourself? What will you breathe? These and hundreds of detailed questions must be answered. At present, we have little knowledge about a totally closed environment life support system (CELSS). We have developed in this paper a list of references that are pertinent to the problem. It is divided into subject areas and listed chronologically, rather than alphabetically.
pubmed: 11537757 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11537757
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A hydroponic system for microgravity plant experiments

1988

B.D. Wright, W.C. Bausch, W.M. Knott

publication: Transactions of the ASAE. American Society of Agricultural Engineers

Abstract

The construction of a permanently manned space station will provide the opportunity to grow plants for weeks or months in orbit for experiments or food production. With this opportunity comes the need for a method to provide plants with a continuous supply of water and nutrients in microgravity. The Capillary Effect Root Environment System (CERES) uses capillary forces to maintain control of circulating plant nutrient solution in the weightless environment of an orbiting spacecraft. The nutrient solution is maintained at a pressure slightly less than the ambient air pressure while it flows on one side of a porous membrane. The root, on the other side of the membrane, is surrounded by a thin film of nutrient solution where it contacts the moist surface of the membrane. The root is provided with water, nutrients and air simultaneously. Air bubbles in the nutrient solution are removed using a hydrophobic/hydrophilic membrane system. A model scaled to the size necessary for flight hardware to test CERES in the space shuttle was constructed.
doi: 10.13031/2013.30728 pubmed: 11539001 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=30728
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[citation] The results of porous tube plant growth unit experiment T6B

1988

T.W. Dreschel

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[citation] Old MacDonald has a factory

1988

R. Field

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Effects of incandescent radiation on photosynthesis, growth rate and yield of Waldmann’s Green’ leaf lettuce

1988

Sharon L. Knight,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Scientia horticulturae

Abstract

'Waldmann's Green' leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was grown either under 84% irradiance from incandescent (In) + 16% from fluorescence (Fl) lamps, or 100% from metal halide (MH) lamps, both at 392 micromoles s-1 m-2 of photosynthetically active radiation (400-700 nm) from 11 to 19 days after seeding. No differences in leaf dry weight, leaf area, relative growth rate (RGR) or photosynthesis (Pn) occurred after 8 days of exposure to these radiation treatments for 20 h day-1. However, a 23% reduction in root dry weight, a 123% increase in stem length and a 61% increase in stem dry weight were found with In + Fl relative to MH radiation. A photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 920 micromoles s-1 m-2 from the In + Fl source increased leaf dry weight by 13% and RGR by 21% relative to those at 460 micromoles s-1 m-2 from the same source. From 4 to 8 days of treatment, high PPF did not lower shoot dry gain, but did lower RGR. Photosynthesis and net assimilation rate were lower while leaf area ratio was higher at 460 than at 920 micromoles s-1 m-2 over the 8-day treatment period. When PPF from MH lamps was 400 micromoles s-1 m-2, leaf dry weight was 20% greater than if PPF was 805 micromoles s-1 m-2 after 4 days of treatment, but no differences were detected after 8 days. Relative growth rate increased by 11% during the first 4 days, but declined by 12% during the second 4 days under high- relative to low-PPF MH radiation. Lettuce productivity was stimulated by high PPF from either lamp type from Day 11 to Day 14, but not from Day 15 to Day 19 after seeding.
doi: 10.1016/0304-4238(88)90036-2 pubmed: 11539046 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304423888900350
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Radiation in controlled environments: Influence of lamp type and filter material

1988

D.L. Bubenheim, B. Bugbee, F.B. Salisbury

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Radiation in controlled environments was characterized using fluorescent and various high-intensity-discharge (HID) lamps, including metal halide, low-pressure sodium, and high-pressure sodium as the radiation source. The effects of water, glass, or Plexiglas filters on radiation were determined. Photosynthetic photon flux (PPF, 400 to 700 nm), spectra (400 to 1000 nm), shortwave radiation (285-2800 nm), and total radiation (300 to 100,000 nm) were measured, and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400 to 700 nm) and longwave radiation (2800 to 100,000 nm) were calculated. Measurement of PPF alone was not an adequate characterization of the radiation environment. Total radiant flux varied among lamp types at equal PPF. HID lamps provided a lower percentage of longwave radiation than fluorescent lamps, but, when HID lamps provided PPF levels greater than that possible with fluorescent lamps, the amount of longwave radiation was high. Water was the most effective longwave radiation filter. Glass and Plexiglas similarly filtered longwave more than shortwave radiation, but transmission of nonphotosynthetic shortwave radiation was less with Plexiglas than glass. The filter materials tested would not be expected to influence photomorphogenesis because radiation in the action spectrum of phytochrome was not altered, but this may not be the only pigment involved.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.113.3.468 pubmed: 11539082 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/113/3/article-p468.xml
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Effects of mechanical stress or abscisic acid on growth, water status, and leaf abscisic acid content of eggplant seedlings

1988

Joyce Griffin Latimer,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Scientia horticulturae

Abstract

Container-grown eggplant (Solanum melongena L. var esculentum Nees. 'Burpee's Black Beauty') seedlings were conditioned with brief, periodic mechanical stress or abscisic acid (ABA) in a greenhouse prior to outdoor exposure. Mechanical stress consisted of seismic (shaking) or thigmic (stem flexing) treatment. Exogenous ABA (10(-3) or 10(-4)M) was applied as a soil drench 3 days prior to outdoor transfer. During conditioning, only thigmic stress reduced stem elongation and only 10(-3) M ABA reduced relative growth rate (RGR). Both conditioning treatments increased leaf specific chlorophyll content, but mechanical stress did not affect leaf ABA content. Outdoor exposure of unconditioned eggplant seedlings decreased RGR and leaf-specific chlorophyll content, but tended to increase leaf ABA content relative to that of plants maintained in the greenhouse. Conditioning did not affect RGR of plants subsequently transferred outdoors, but did reduce stem growth. Seismic stress applied in the greenhouse reduced dry weight gain by plants subsequently transferred outdoors. Mechanical stress treatments increased leaf water potential by 18-25% relative to that of untreated plants.
doi: 10.1016/0304-4238(88)90005-2 pubmed: 11539768 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304423888900052
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Minitron II system for precise control of the plant growth environment

1988

S.L. Knight, C.P. Akers, S.W. Akers, C.A. Mitchell

publication: Photosynthetica

Abstract

A transparent, cylindrical chamber system was developed to allow measurement of gas-exchange by small crop canopies in the undisturbed plant growth environment. The system is an elaboration of the Minitron system developed previously to compare growth of small plants in different environments within the same general growth area. The Minitron II system described herein accommodates hydroponic culture and separate control of atmospheric composition in individual chambers. Root and shoot environments are compartmented separately to accommodate atmospheres of different flow rate and/or gaseous composition. A series of 0-rings and tension-adjustable springs allow carbon dioxide in the flowing atmosphere to be analyzed without cross-contamination between chamber compartments or from external gas sources. Carbon dioxide has been maintained at set point +/- 9 g m-3 over a range of CO2 concentrations from 382 to 2725 g m-3 and with an atmosphere turnover rate of 136.7 cm3 s-1 by computer-assisted mass flow controllers. Each chamber has dimensions large enough (61 cm internal diameter, 0.151 m3 internal volume) to allow adequate replication of individual plants for statistical purposes (e.g., up to 36 equally-spaced plant holders). No significant variation in growth or photosynthetic rate of leaf lettuce occurred between chambers for a given set of environmental conditions. Gas-exchange rates in different chambers changed to a similar extent as CO2 concentration in the flowing atmosphere or chamber temperature were varied by the same amount. When coupled with appropriate control systems, Minitron II chambers can provide separate controlled environments for multiple small plants with adequate precision and at relatively low cost.
pubmed: 11539769 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539769
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Nitrate transport is independent of NADH and NAD(P)H nitrate reductases in barley seedlings

1989

Robert L. Warner,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) has NADH-specific and NAD(P)H-bispecific nitrate reductase isozymes. Four isogenic lines with different nitrate reductase isozyme combinations were used to determine the role of NADH and NAD(P)H nitrate reductases on nitrate transport and assimilation in barley seedlings. Both nitrate reductase isozymes were induced by nitrate and were required for maximum nitrate assimilation in barley seedlings. Genotypes lacking the NADH isozyme (Az12) or the NAD(P)H isozyme (Az70) assimilated 65 or 85%, respectively, as much nitrate as the wild type. Nitrate assimilation by genotype (Az12;Az70) which is deficient in both nitrate reductases, was only 13% of the wild type indicating that the NADH and NAD(P)H nitrate reductase isozymes are responsible for most of the nitrate reduction in barley seedlings. For all genotypes, nitrate assimilation rates in the dark were about 55% of the rates in light. Hypotheses that nitrate reductase has direct or indirect roles in nitrate uptake were not supported by this study. Induction of nitrate transporters and the kinetics of net nitrate uptake were the same for all four genotypes indicating that neither nitrate reductase isozyme has a direct role in nitrate uptake in barley seedlings.
doi: 10.1104/pp.91.3.947 pubmed: 11537465 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/91/3/947/6084471
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Effects of NaCl on metabolic heat evolution rates by barley roots

1989

Richard S. Criddle,Lee D. Hansen,R. William Breidenbach,Michael R. Ward,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The effect of salinity stress on metabolic heat output of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) root tips was measured by isothermal microcalorimetry. Several varieties differing in tolerance to salinity were compared and differences quantified. Two levels of inhibition by increasing salt were found. Following the transition from the initial rate of the first level, inhibition remained at about 50% with further increases in salt concentration up to 150 millimolar. The concentration of salt required to inhibit to this level was cultivar dependent. At highter concentrations (>150 millimolar) of salt, metabolism was further decreased. This decrease was not cultivar dependent. The decreased rate of metabolic heat output at the first transition could be correlated with decreases in uptake of NO3-, NH4+, and Pi that occurred as the salt concentration was increased. The high degree of dependence of the inhibition of metabolic heat output on NaCl concentration points to a highly cooperative reaction responsible for the general inhibition of metabolism and nutrient uptake. The time required to attain the first level of salt inhibition is less than 20 minutes. Inhibition of root tips was not reversible by washing with salt free solutions. In addition to revealing these features of salt inhibition, isothermal microcalorimetry is a promising method for convenient and rapid determination of varietal differences in response to increasing salinity.
doi: 10.1104/pp.90.1.53 pubmed: 11537454 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/90/1/53/6084894
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Development of the CELSS emulator at NASA JSC

1989

Hatice S. Cullingford

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Emulator is under development at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) with the purpose to investigate computer simulations of integrated CELSS operations involving humans, plants, and process machinery. This paper describes Version 1.0 of the CELSS Emulator that was initiated in 1988 on the JSC Multi Purpose Applications Console Test Bed as the simulation framework. The run module of the simulation system now contains a CELSS model called BLSS. The CELSS Emulator empowers us to generate model data sets, store libraries of results for further analysis, and also display plots of model variables as a function of time. The progress of the project is presented with sample test runs and simulation display pages.
doi: 10.4271/891477 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/891477/
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Conceptual design of a closed loop nutrient solution delivery system for CELSS implementation in a micro-gravity environment

1989

Steven H. Schwartzkopf,Mel W. Oleson,Hatice S. Cullingford

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

This paper describes the results of a study to develop a conceptual design for an experimental, closed-loop fluid handling system capable of monitoring, controlling, and supplying nutrient solution to higher plants. The Plant Feeder Experiment (PFX) is designed to be flight tested in a micro-gravity (micro-g) environment and was developed under NASA's In-Space Technology Experiments Program (INSTEP). When flown, PFX will provide information on both the generic problems of micro-g fluid handling and the specific problems associated with the delivery of nutrient solution in a micro-g environment. The experimental hardware is designed to fit into two middeck lockers on the Space Shuttle, and incorporates several components that have previously been flight tested.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44471717
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CELSS engineering: Proportional control of CO2 using higher plants

1989

Bruce D. Wright,Albert Garcia

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Higher plants have physiological responses to the environment which can be utilized in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System to increase system reliability and to simplify design. The rate of CO2 uptake by the plants will affect the CO2 concentration in the CELSS and visa versa. This response of photosynthesis to CO2 concentration can be used as a proportional controller for atmospheric CO2 in the CELSS. Results from growth chamber experiments with wheat confirm this possibility. Times series analysis techniques are presented which provide a quantitative measure of this proportional control. System reliability is increased when biological and mechanical systems are used in parallel.
doi: 10.4271/891573 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/891573/
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Sweet Potato Growth Parameters, Yeild Components and Nutritive Value for CELSS Applications

1989

P. A. Loretan,C. K. Bonsi,W. A. Hill,C. R. Ogbuehi,D. G. Mortley,J. Y. Lu,C. E. Morris,R. D. Pace

publication: unknown

Abstract

Sweet potatoes have been grown hydroponically using the nutrient film technique (NFT) to provide a potential food source for long-term manned space missions. Experiments in both sand and NFT with ‘Georgia Jet’ and ‘T1-155' cultivars have produced up to 1790g/plant of fresh storage root with an edible biomass index ranging from 60-89% and edible biomass linear growth rates of 39-66gm^-2d^-1 in 105 to 130 days. Experiments with different cultivars, nutrient solution compositions and application rates, air and root temperatures, photopertods and light intensities indicate good potential for sweet potatoes in Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS).
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44471711
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The crop growth research chamber: A ground-based facility for CELSS research

1989

David L. Bubenhelm,Christian L. straight,Phil M. Luna,Kimberly M. Wagenbach,Mark Haslerud

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

A ground-based facility' for the study of plant growth and development under stringently controlled environments is being developed by the CELSS program at the Ames Research Center. Several Crop Growth Research Chambers (CGRC) and laboratory support equipment provide the core of this facility. The CGRC is a closed (sealed) system with separate recirculating atmosphere and nutrient delivery systems.Environmental influences on gas exchange, growth and development, and biomass and food production of crop plants growing within the closed environment will be investigated. Laboratory size of the CGRC will be small enough to allow treatment replication but large enough to provide information representative of larger plant communities. Water recovery and management systems and gas management systems will be included. Eventual integration of candidate waste processing technologies into the cycling system is intended. Development of a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) requires identification of the critical requirements that will allow the system to operate with stability and efficiency. Identifying and meeting those requirements will be accomplished through scientific experimentation and technology development on the ground. A Crop Growth Research Facility has been defined by CELSS principal investigators and science advisory panels as necessary for the development of a bioregenerative life support system (1,2). The crop growth research facility is for the study of plant growth and development under stringently controlled environments isolated from the external environment. This facility is important for three CELSS activities: 1) research, 2) system control and integration, and 3) flight hardware design and experimentation. Several Crop Growth Research Chambers and laboratory support equipment provide the core of this facility. The Crop Growth Research Chamber (CGRC) is a closed (sealed) controlled environment system designed for the growth of a community of crop plants with separate recirculating atmosphere and nutrient delivery systems.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44471719
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Wheat response to CO2 enrichment: Effect on photosynthetic and photorespiratory characteristics

1989

H.C. Du Cloux, M. Andre, A. Gerbaud, A. Daguenet

publication: Photosynthetica

Abstract

The effects of doubling atmospheric CO2 concn on photosynthesis and photorespiration were studied on wheat cultivated for 37 or 72 d in growth chambers at 200 and 40 plants/m2. Net photosynthetic rate (PN) was measured continuously during the experiments and response curves to CO2 were made at intervals. Differences observed between the CO2 curves of the plants grown in normal and CO2-enriched atmosphere could be explained by the greater leaf area of the second group of plants. Photorespiration was tested by the Warburg effect or measured directly on isolated plants by the uptake of 18O2. Oxygen uptake was reduced by 40% by the high CO2 treatment, but high CO2 plants were identical to the control group when returned to the same conditions. The enhancement of DM production was due to the kinetic response of PN to CO2, as there was no appreciable long-term adaptation of the kinetic characteristics of photosynthesis.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19900738606
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Farming on the Moon: Reaching the potential of crop productivity

1989

F.B. Salisbury

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Waste recycling issues in bioregenerative life support

1989

R.D. MacElroy,D. Wang

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Research and technology development issues centering on the recycling of materials within a bioregenerative life support system are reviewed. The importance of recovering waste materials for subsequent use is emphasized. Such material reclamation will substantially decrease the energy penalty paid for bioregenerative life support systems, and can potentially decrease the size of the system and its power demands by a significant amount. Reclamation of fixed nitrogen and the sugars in cellulosic materials is discussed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90031-8 pubmed: 11537394 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900318
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Latent nitrate reductase activity is associated with the plasma membrane of corn roots

1989

Michael R. Ward,Howard D. Grimes,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Planta

Abstract

Latent nitrate reductase activity (NRA) was detected in corn (Zea mays L., Golden Jubilee) root microsome fractions. Microsome-associated NRA was stimulated up to 20-fold by Triton X-100 (octylphenoxy polyethoxyethanol) whereas soluble NRA was only increased up to 1.2-fold. Microsome-associated NRA represented up to 19% of the total root NRA. Analysis of microsomal fractions by aqueous two-phase partitioning showed that the membrane-associated NRA was localized in the second upper phase (U2). Analysis with marker enzymes indicated that the U2 fraction was plasma membrane (PM). The PM-associated NRA was not removed by washing vesicles with up to 1.0 M NACl but was solubilized from the PM with 0.05% Triton X-100. In contrast, vanadate-sensitive ATPase activity was not solubilized from the PM by treatment with 0.1% Triton X-100. The results show that a protein capable of reducing nitrate is embedded in the hydrophobic region of the PM of corn roots.
doi: 10.1007/BF00392614 pubmed: 24212488 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00392614
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Closed and continuous algae cultivation system for food production and gas exchange in CELSS Adv

1989

M. Oguchi, K. Otsubo, K. Nitta, A. Shimada, S. Fujii, T. Koyano, K. Miki

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

In CELSS (Controlled Ecological Life Support System), utilization of photosynthetic algae is an effective means for obtaining food and oxygen at the same time. We have chosen Spirulina, a blue-green alga, and have studied possibilities of algae utilization. We have developed an advanced algae cultivation system, which is able to produce algae continuously in a closed condition. Major features of the new system are as follows. (1) In order to maintain homogeneous culture conditions, the cultivator was designed so as to cause a swirl on medium circulation. (2) Oxygen gas separation and carbon dioxide supply are conducted by a newly designed membrane module. (3) Algae mass and medium are separated by a specially designed harvester. (4) Cultivation conditions, such as pH, temperature, algae growth rate, light intensity and quantity of generated oxygen gas are controlled by a computer system and the data are automatically recorded. This equipment is a primary model for ground experiments in order to obtain some design data for space use. A feasibility of algae cultivation in a closed condition is discussed on the basis of data obtained by use of this new system.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90042-2 pubmed: 11537384 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900422
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Productivity and food value of Amaranthus cruentus under non-lethal salt stress

1989

Bruce A. Macler,Robert D. MacElroy

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Stress effects from the accumulation of metal salts may pose a problem for plants in closed biological systems such as spacecraft. This work examined the effects of salinity on growth, photosynthesis and carbon allocation in the crop plant, Amaranthus. Plants were germinated and grown in modified Hoagland's solution with NaCl concentrations of 0 to 1.0%. Plants received salt treatments at various times in development to assess effects on particular life history phases. For Amaranthus cruentus, germination, vegetative growth, flowering, seed development and yield were normal at salinities from 0 to 0.2%. Inhibition of these phases increased from 0.2 to 0.4% salinity and was total above 0.5%. 1.0% salinity was lethal to all developmental phases. Onset of growth phases were not affected by salinity. Plants could not be adapted by gradually increasing salinity over days or weeks. Water uptake increased, while photosynthetic CO2 uptake decreased with increasing salinity on a dry weight basis during vegetative growth. Respiration was not affected by salinity. After flowering, respiration and photosynthesis decreased markedly, such that 1.0% NaCl inhibited photosynthesis completely. Protein levels were unchanged with increasing salinity. Leaf starch levels were lower at salinities of 0.5% and above, while stem starch levels were not affected by these salinities. The evidence supports salt inhibition arising from changes in primary biochemical processes rather than from effects on water relations. While not addressing the toxic effects of specific ions, it suggests that moderate salinity per se need not be a problem in space systems.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90037-9 pubmed: 11537382 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900379
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Effect of CO2 and O2 on development and fructification of wheat in closed systems

1989

M. André,F. Cotte,A. Gerbaud,D. Massimino,J. Massimino,C. Richaud

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The cultivation of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was performed in controlled environment chambers with the continuous monitoring of photosynthesis, dark respiration, transpiration and main nutrient uptakes. A protocol in twin chambers was developed to compare the specific effects of low O2 and high CO2. Each parameter is able to influence photosynthesis but different effects are obtained In the development, fructification and seed production, because of the different effects of each parameter on the ratio of reductive to oxidative cycle of carbon. The first main conclusion is that low level of O2, at the same rate of biomass production, strongly acts on the rate of ear appearance and on seed production. Ear appearance was delayed and seed production reduced with a low O2 treatment (approximately 4%). The O2 effect was not mainly due to the repression of the oxidative cycle. The high CO2 treatment (700 to 900 microl l-1) delayed ear appearance by 4 days but did not reduce seed production. High CO2 treatment also reduced transpiration by 20%. Two hypothesis were proposed to explain the similarities and the difference in the O2 and CO2 effects on the growth of wheat.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90025-2 pubmed: 11537385 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900252
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Maximizing productivity for CELSS using hydroponics

1989

S.L. Knight

publication: unknown

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Role of nitrate and nitrite in the induction of nitrite reductase in leaves of barley seedlings

1989

Muhammad Aslam,Ray C. Huffaker

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

The role of NO3- and NO2- in the induction of nitrite reductase (NiR) activity in detached leaves of 8-day-old barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seedlings was investigated. Barley leaves contained 6 to 8 micromoles NO2-/gram fresh weight x hour of endogenous NiR activity when grown in N-free solutions. Supply of both NO2- and NO3- induced the enzyme activity above the endogenous levels (5 and 10 times, respectively at 10 millimolar NO2- and NO3- over a 24 hour period). In NO3(-)-supplied leaves, NiR induction occurred at an ambient NO3- concentration of as low as 0.05 millimolar; however, no NiR induction was found in leaves supplied with NO2- until the ambient NO2- concentration was 0.5 millimolar. Nitrate accumulated in NO2(-)-fed leaves. The amount of NO3- accumulating in NO2(-)-fed leaves induced similar levels of NiR as did equivalent amounts of NO3- accumulating in NO3(-)-fed leaves. Induction of NiR in NO2(-)-fed leaves was not seen until NO3- was detectable (30 nanomoles/gram fresh weight) in the leaves. The internal concentrations of NO3-, irrespective of N source, were highly correlated with the levels of NiR induced. When the reduction of NO3- to NO2- was inhibited by WO4(2-), the induction of NiR was inhibited only partially. The results indicate that in barley leaves in NiR is induced by NO3- directly, i.e. without being reduced to NO2-, and that absorbed NO2- induces the enzyme activity indirectly after being oxidized to NO3- within the leaf.
doi: 10.1104/pp.91.3.1152 pubmed: 11537455 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/91/3/1152/6084532
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Biological nitrogen fixation under primordial Martian partial pressures of dinitrogen

1989

J.M. Klingler,R.L. Mancinelli,M.R. White

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Early Earth and early Mars were similar enough such that past geochemical and climatic conditions on Mars may have also been favorable for the origin of life. However, one of the most striking differences between the two planets was the low partial pressure of dinitrogen (pN2) on early Mars (18 mb). On Earth, nitrogen is a key biological element and in many ecosystems the low availability of fixed nitrogen compounds is the main factor limiting growth. Biological fixation of dinitrogen on Earth is a crucial source of fixed nitrogen. Could the low availability of dinitrogen in the primordial Martian atmosphere have prevented the existence, or evolution of Martian microbiota? Azotobacter vinelandii and Azomonas agilis were grown in nitrogen free synthetic medium under various partial pressures of dinitrogen ranging from 780-0 mb (total atmosphere=1 bar). Below 400 mb the biomass, cell number, and growth rate decreased with decreasing pN2. Both microorganisms were capable of growth at a pN2 as low as 5 mb, but no growth was observed at a pN2 < or = 1 mb. The data appear to indicate that biological nitrogen fixation could have occurred on primordial Mars (pN2=18 mb) making it possible for a biotic system to have played a role in the Martian nitrogen cycle. It is possible that nitrogen may have played a key role in the early evolution of life on Mars, and that later a lack of available nitrogen on that planet (currently, pN2=0.2 mb) may have been involved in its subsequent extinction.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90225-1 pubmed: 11537369 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789902251
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Microorganisms and the growth of higher plants in Lunar-derived soils

1989

G. Stotzky

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

Life on a lunar base will be affected—in fact, controlled—by microbes, as is life on Earth. Consequently, the factors that influence the activity, ecology, and population dynamics of microbes on Earth should be similar on the Moon. Although genetically engineered microorganisms may have potentially important roles in rendering the lunar surface more hospitable for earthlings, information on the potential hazards of such "superbugs" is available to consider seriously their introduction into the sterile lunar environment. One of the components of natural terrestrial soils that is important to the growth of microbes and plants are clay minerals, which appear to be absent in the lunar regolith. In addition to retaining nutrients on their exchange complexes, clay minerals also remove protons, heavy metals, and other toxicants from their associated water, thereby enabling the continuous growth of microbes.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c9 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c9
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Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

1989

D.W. Ming, D.L. Henninger

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth (BOOK)

Abstract

Whether or not plants will be grown on the Moon has not been answered; however, it is a possible scenario that will continue to be discussed by the planetary community. Consequently, this book will be a major source of information for many years to those seeking ways to produce food in space, particularly if the Moon serves as an outpost to launch human exploration to our inner solar system.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture
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Design for bioreactor with sunlight supply and operations systems for use in the space environment

1989

Kei Mori,Haruhiko Ohya,Kanji Matsumoto,Hiroyuki Furuune,Kyôko Isozaki,Peter Siekmeier

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

An experiment was carried out to determine the characteristics of an operations system that can support fast cultivation of algae at high densities in the weightlessness of space. The experiment was conducted in glass bioreactor tanks, in which light was supplied by radiator rods connected to optical fiber cables. The illumination areas of the tanks were 2600 cm2, 6000 cm2, and 9200 cm2 per liter of solution. The characteristics of O2-CO2 gas exchange, concentration and separation of chlorella in the growth medium, dialysis of ionic salts in the growth medium, etc. were examined. Chloralla ellipsoidea was used in the experiment, yielding the following results: (1) By increasing the ratio of illumination area to volume, growth rates of up to approximately 0.6 g/L h could be obtained in a highly concentrated solution (one that contains 20 g/L or more of algae). (2) The most suitable proportions of carbon dioxide and oxygen gases for growing algae quickly at high concentrations were found to be 10% CO2 and 10% O2 (by volume). (3) There was a high optimum concentration for fast cultivation, and the data obtained resembled the theoretical curve postulated by P. Behrens et al. (4) It was possible to exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen using gas-permeable membrane modules. (5) It was possible to separate the chlorella from the growth medium and recycle the medium.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90041-0 pubmed: 11537383 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900410
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Utilization of non-conventional systems for conversion of biomass to food components

1989

M. Karel, Z. Nakhost

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Described here is work accomplished in investigating the potential use of micro-algae in yielding useful macronutrients for closed ecological life support systems in space habitats. Analysis of the chemical composition of the blue-green alga Synechoccus 6311 was done in the present work, and was compared to values found in previous work on the green algae Scenedesmus obliquus. Similar values were obtained for proteins, and lower values for nucleic acids and lipids. A second part of the work involved fabrication of food products containing various levels of incorporated algae (S. obliquus) proteins and/or lipids. Protein isolate was incorporated into a variety of food products such as bran muffins, fettuccine (spinach noodle imitation), and chocolate chip cookies. In the sensory analysis, the greenish color of the bran muffins and cookies was not found to be objectionable. The mild spinachy flavor was less detectable in chocolate chip cookies than in bran muffins. The color and taste of the algae noodles were found to be pleasant and compared well with commercially available spinach noodles.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19900006275
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Long-term experiments on man’s stay in a biological life-support system

1989

J.I. Gitelson, I.A. Terskov, B.G. Kovrov, G.M. Lisoviski, Yu N. Okladnikov, F.Ya Sid’ko, I.N. Tubachev, M.P. Shilenko, S.S. Alekseev, I.M. Pan’kova, L.S. Tirranen

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

We describe the experimental system having maximal possible closure of material recycling in an ecosystem, including people and plants, which was carried out in a hermetically sealed experimental complex “BIOS-3”, 315 m2 in volume. The system included 2 experimentators and 3 phytotrons with plants (total sowing area of 63 m2). Plants were grown with round-the-clock lamp irradiation with 130 Wm−2 PAR intensity. The plants production was food for people. Water exchange of ecosystem, as well as gas exchange, was fully closed excluding liquids and gas samples taken for chemical analysis outside the system. The total closure of material turnover constituted 91%. Health state of the crew was estimated before, during and after the experiment. A 5-months period did not affect their health. The experiments carried out prove that the closed ecosystem of “man-plants” is a prototype of a life-support system for long-term space expeditions.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90030-6 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900306
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Potato growth in response to relative humidity

1989

R.M. Wheeler, T.W. Tibbitts, A.H. Fitzpatrick

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Potato plants (Solanum tuberosum L. cvs. Russet Burbank, Norland, and Denali) were grown for 56 days in controlled-environment rooms under continuous light at 20C and 50% or 85% RH. No significant differences in total plant dry weight were measured between the humidity treatments, but plants grown under 85% RH produced higher tuber yields. Leaf areas were greater under 50% RH and leaves tended to be larger and darker green than at 85% RH.
pubmed: 11540907 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/11805356_Potato_growth_in_resp...
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Analysis of an algae-based celss: Part 2: Options and weight analysis

1989

M.T. Holtzapple, F.E. Little, W.M. Moses, C.O. Patterson

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

Life support components are evaluated for application to an idealized closed life support system which includes an algal reactor for food production. Weight-based trade studies are reported as “breakeven” time for replacing food stores with a regenerative bioreactor. It is concluded that closure of the life support gases (oxygen recovery) depends on the carbon dioxide reduction chemistry and that an algae-based food production can provide an attractive alternative to re-supply for longer duration missions.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(89)90033-7 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0094576589900337
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The C23A: First step to a monitoring system of CELSS in flight

1989

Ch. Lasseur,D. Massimino,J.L. Renou,Ch. Richaud

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Studies for every level of CELSS: Waste processing, food production, photosynthesis system, and so on ..., imply an automatic system to control, command and quantify gases, water and chemical compounds. Used for many years in plant physiology studies, the C23A system monitors the analysis and quantifies gases (O2, CO2. N2, ...), physical parameters (temperature, humidity, ...) and chemical compounds (NH4+, N03-, ...) on numerous experiments. In the new version, the architecture of the computing system is near of the space requirements. We have chosen a structure with three independent levels: acquisition, monitoring and supervision. Moreover, we use multiplexed analysers: IRGA, mass spectrometer and cheminal analyser. The multiplexing increases the accuracy of the measurements and could facilitate the spatialization. Thus the whole structure anticipates the entire separation between automation in space and control-command on ground.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90034-3 pubmed: 11537379 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900343
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Cyclic variations in nitrogen uptake rate of soybean plants

1989

L.T. Henry, C.D. Raper

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

When NO3- is the sole nitrogen source in flowing solution culture, the net rate of nitrogen uptake by nonnodulated soybean (Glycine max L. Merr. cv Ransom) plants cycles between maxima and minima with a periodicity of oscillation that corresponds with the interval of leaf emergence. Since soybean plants accumulate similar quantities of nitrogen when either NH4+ or NO3- is the sole source in solution culture controlled at pH 6.0, an experiment was conducted to determine if the oscillations in net rate of nitrogen uptake also occur when NH4+ is the nitrogen source. During a 21-day period of vegetative development, net uptake of NH4+ was measured daily by ion chromatography as depletion of NH4+ from a replenished nutrient solution containing 1.0 millimolar NH4+. The net rate of NH4+ uptake oscillated with a periodicity that was similar to the interval of leaf emergence. Instances of negative net rates of uptake indicate that the transition between maxima and minima involved changes in influx and efflux components of net NH4+ uptake.
doi: 10.1104/pp.91.4.1345 pubmed: 11537458 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/78/2/320/6080403
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The case for cellulose production on Mars

1989

T. Volk, J.D. Rummel

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

From examining the consequences of not requiring that all wastes from life support be recycled back to the food plants, it is concluded that cellulose production on Mars could be an important input for many nonmetabolic material requirements on Mars. The fluxes of carbon in cellulose production would probably exceed those in food production, and therefore settlements on Mars could utilize cellulose farms in building a Mars infrastructure.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19900029476
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Sweetpotato growth parameters, yield components and nutritive value for CELSS applications

1989

P.A. Loretan, C.K. Bonsi, W.A. Hill, C.R. Ogbuehi, D.G. Mortley, J.Y. Lu, C.E. Morris, R.D. Pace

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

Sweet potatoes have been grown hydroponically using the nutrient film technique (NFT) to provide a potential food source for long–term manned space missions. Experiments in both sand and NFT with 'Georgia Jet' and 'TI–155' cultivare have produced up to 1790 g/plant of fresh storage root with an edible biomass index ranging from 60–89% and edible biomass linear growth rates of 39–66 g m⁻² d⁻¹ in 105 to 130 days. Experiments with different cultivars, nutrient solution compositions and application rates, air and root temperatures, photoperiods and light intensities indicate good potential for sweet potatoes in Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS).
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44471711
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Analysis of an algae-based cellss: Part 1: Model development

1989

M.T. Holtzapple, R.E. Little, M.E. Makela, C.O. Patterson

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

A steady state chemical model and computer program have been developed for a life support system and applied to trade-off studies. The model is based on human demand for food and oxygen determined from crew metabolic needs. The model includes modules for water recycle, waste treatment, CO2 removal and treatment, and food production. The computer program calculates rates of use and material balance for food, O2, the recycle of human waste and trash, H2O, N2, and food production/supply. A simple non-iterative solution for the model has been developed using the steady state rate equations for the chemical reactions. The model and program have been used in system sizing and subsystem trade-off studies of a partially closed life support system.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(89)90032-5 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0094576589900325
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Nutritional stresses in tomato genotypes grown under high-pressure sodium vapor lamps

1989

A.V. Barker, K.A. Corey, L.E. Craker

publication: HortScience

Abstract

The genotypes Heinz 1350, Neglecta-1 and Yellow-green-5 were grown during winter under natural light or with natural light supplemented with light from high-pressure sodium vapour (HPS) lamps (200-400 µmol/s m2). The plants were grown in sand culture with NO3- or NH4+. Symptoms resembling Ca, Mg, K and P deficiencies developed on the foliage of plants exposed to radiation from HPS lamps. Shoots receiving HPS irradiation showed clustering of short branches in the lateral and terminal growing regions of Yellow-green-5 and epinasty in the other 2 genotypes. Ethylene evolution in all 3 genotypes was enhanced by supplemental lighting and NH4+ nutrition. With NO3-, Heinz 1350 and Neglecta-1 shoots grown under the HPS lamps had lower concentrations of Ca, Mg and N than those grown under natural light. With NH4+ nutrition, all of the elements except N were lower in the Yellow-green-5 plants grown under HPS lamps than under natural light. The lower total Ca, Mg, K, N and P concentrations in this cultivar compared with the other cultivars studied was attributed to genetic differences in plant size. HPS irradiation decreased the shoot Ca, Mg, K and P concentrations compared with natural light and increased shoot dry weights. Total Ca, Mg, K and P accumulation was not suppressed by HPS lighting, indicating that the phytotoxic effects of the lamps was not due to their effects on total nutrient accumulation. Spectral deficiency was ruled out as a possible explanation of the growth abnormalities since all plants had received solar irradiation.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19891606853
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Strategies for a permanent lunar base

1989

Michael B. Duke,Wendell W. Mendell,Barney B. Roberts

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

Planned activities at a manned lunar base can be categorized as supporting one or more of three possible objectives: scientific research, exploitation of lunar resources for use in building a space infrastructure, or attainment of self-sufficiency in the lunar environment as a first step in planetary habitation. The cost and the complexity of the base, as well as the structure of the Space Transportation System are functions of the chosen long-term strategy for the lunar mission. The promise of the Moon is not immediately evident from examination of the American space program. Depending on the long-term objectives of the lunar base program, the detailed studies and the experimental plans start to diverge at this phase for different scenarios. Growth may occur by enlarging the number of experiments or products produced on the Moon, but a self-sustaining capability is not included. The production base might develop toward a highly automated state where permanent occupancy was unnecessary.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c2 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c2
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Manufactured soils for plant growth at a lunar base

1989

Douglas W. Ming

publication: Lunar base agriculture: soils for plant growth

Abstract

A synthetic or manufactured soil could be sized and prepared to best suit the physical and chemical properties necessary to maximize plant growth. Plant growth at a lunar base will be essential to sustain a self-sufficient human colony. This chapter proposes several hypothetical, plant growth systems in inorganic, solid-support substrates. Most of the plant growth research in controlled ecological life support systems has been aimed toward hydroponic systems. Soils also may be viable plant growth systems; however, one's knowledge of how lunar materials will react as soil is virtually unknown. Four primary functions of a root media should be considered when developing a synthetic lunar soil—nutrient retention, aeration, moisture retention, and mechanical support. Most terrestrial potting media have organic matter that provides nutrient and water retention. The production of organic components for a root media at a lunar base will be difficult because of the small quantities of organic compounds present in the regolith.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c7 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c7
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Microbiological considerations for lunar-derived soils

1989

D. B. Alexander,D. A. Zuberer,D. H. Hubbell

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

This chapter discusses some of the contributions that will be required of microorganisms to make the development of such a soil possible. It focuses on the role microbes play in cycling the major nutrients, carbon and nitrogen (N), required for plant production. Since lunar regolith is virtually devoid of plant-available N, it is clear that N for self-sustaining food production systems based on lunar-derived soils will initially have to be transported to the lunar surface at great expense. An intensive investigation of the microbiology of groundwaters, prompted by recognition of frequent contamination of aquifers with a wide variety of xenobiotics, suggests a possible source of mixed inoculum for lunar soils. Human life in a lunar environment is totally dependent on in situ sustainable agriculture, which in turn is dependent on near-perfect recycling of organic and inorganic nutrients.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c18 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c18
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Nutrient availability and element toxicity in lunar-derived soils

1989

L. R. Hossner,E. R. Allen

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

This chapter examines the use of lunar soils as a growth medium for higher plants and focuses on nutrient availability and element toxicity problems that may arise due to the chemical properties of the lunar regolith. A nutrient must be both chemically and positionally available before plant uptake can occur. Most information in the literature useful for predicting nutrient availability in lunar soils contains only a measure of the total soil element concentrations. Micronutrients essential for plant growth and other trace elements in terrestrial soils can be toxic to plants if their concentrations are too high. Lunar soils can be divided into two broad categories based on topography: those located in low-lying basins and depressions called maria, and those located in the highlands. Some interpretations can be made concerning the nutrient-supplying potential of lunar soils based on their composition. Soil composition, pH, and Eh play major roles in determining whether element toxicity problems will occur.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c6 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c6
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Plant considerations for lunar base agriculture

1989

T. W. Tibbitts

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

A major emphasis is being placed on the growth of higher plants for life support in controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS) for lunar and other space bases. The research needs have been divided into four general categories to emphasize the unique and different area of research facing scientists working on CELSS. The categories are plant productivity, closed environments, automation and robotics, and space environment. Plant productivity is being investigated by several different scientists both in the USA and USSR. The research for establishing productivity needs in CELSS, based on gm-2 d-1 are significantly different than for studying productivity in traditional agricultural systems. There is a need for extensive screening of lines and cultivars of species from all over the world. There is a need for determining the productivity of plants with different spacing to minimize the number of transplants or seeds that would have to be used on a given area.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c17 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c17
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Geochemistry of soils for lunar base agriculture: Future research needs

1989

Gene Whitney

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

This chapter outlines some of the geochemical research topics that require investigation to develop soils for controlled ecological life support systems on the Moon. The physical characteristics of the minerals and glass in lunar regolith will play a major role in mineral and glass solubility. The study of precipitation of colloids and solids in the lunar soil environment is an extension of the study of the dissolution of primary phases. If the lunar materials are as reactive as anticipated, then soil solutions will rapidly become supersaturated with respect to various secondary phases. The mobilization, transportation, and final residence of metals in lunar soils is important for plant nutrition and toxicological concerns. The movement and precipitation of the metals, along with aluminum will not only determine much of the geochemistry of the system but will also strongly affect the physical characteristics of the soil.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c16 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c16
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Role of microbes to condition lunar regolith for plant cultivation

1989

Henry L. Ehrlich

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

On Earth, plants derive mineral elements from the soil in which they grow. Besides nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur (S) needed in somewhat larger amounts, plants also require other minerals in trace amounts. In terrestrial soil, microbes play a significant role in mobilizing essential or growth-promoting elements contained in soil minerals. Since terrestrial plants meet their nutritional S requirements with sulfate (S04), microbes are even important in converting free forms of reduced S to So4 by oxidation. Iron in ferric oxide minerals is solubilized under reducing conditions by enzymatic reduction to Fe(II). A significant absence of some elements in lunar minerals has been noted: namely molybdenum and boron, which are important in plant nutrition and microbial activity. Under appropriate conditions, microbes should be able to promote weathering of minerals in regolith on the Moon, thereby making available to plants and themselves nutritionally important mineral elements.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c10 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c10
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Proliferation of maize (Zea mays L.) roots in response to localized supply of nitrate

1989

TOM C. GRANATO,C DAVID RAPER

publication: Journal of Experimental Botany

Abstract

Maize (Zea mays L.) plants with two primary nodal root axes were grown for 8 d in flowing nutrient culture with each axis independently supplied with ⁠NO3-. Dry matter accumulation by roots was similar whether 1.0 mol m−3 ⁠NO3- was supplied to on( or both axes. When ⁠NO3- was supplied to only one axis, however, accumulation of dry matter within the root system was significantly greater in the axis supplied with ⁠NO3- ⁠. The increased dry matter accumulation by the +N-treated axis was attributable entirely to increased density and growth of lateral branches and not to a difference in growth of the primary axis.
Proliferation of lateral branches for the + N axis was associated with the capacity for in situ reduction and utilization of a portion of the absorbed ⁠NO3- ⁠, especially in the apical region where lateral primordia are initiated. Although reduced nitrogen was translocated to the −N axis, concentrations in the −N axis remained significantly lower than in the +N axis. The concentratio of reduced nitrogen, as well as in vitro ⁠NO3- reductase activity, was greater in apical than in more basal regions of the +N axis. The enhanced proliferation of lateral branches in the + N axis was accompanied by an increase in total respiration rate of the axis. Part of the increased respiration was attributable to increased mass of roots. The specific respiration rate (umol CO2 exolved per hour per gram root dry weight) was also greater for the +N than for the −N axis. If respiration rate is taken as representative of sink demand, stimulation of initiation and growth of laterals by in situ utilization of a localized exogenous supply of ⁠NO3- establishes an increased sink demand through enhanced metabolic activity and the increased partitioning of assimilates to the + N axis responds to the difference in sink demand between +N and −N axes.

doi: 10.1093/jxb/40.2.263 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/40/2/263/424150
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CELSS Breadboard Project at the Kennedy Space Center

1989

R. P. Prince,W. M. Knott

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

R. D. MacElroy and J. Bredt have outlined many requirements for a controlled ecological life support system including system control reservoirs and buffers and bioregeneration of air and water. The Kennedy Space Center Breadboard Project was approved in 1985. It focused on the design and operation of a sealed biomass production chamber (BPC) with smaller efforts devoted to food processing and biomass waste management. From December 1986 through March 1987 the BPC was operated in an atmospherically open mode growing wheat. Pressure within the BPC was maintained at 12 mm of water by adjusting the resistance within the closed-loop air-handling circuit, adjusting breathing air, and maintaining CO2. Oxygen will be maintained by the addition of compressed, bottled breathing air. A continuously flowing, thin-film nutrient delivery system was installed. The monitoring, control, and data-acquisition subsystem was designed to manage all subsystems and provide alarm signals to the operator.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c12 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c12
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Controlled environment crop production: Hydroponic vs. lunar regolith

1989

Bruce G. Bugbee,Frank B. Salisbury

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

This chapter discusses two aspects of controlled-environment crop production in a lunar colony. First, it reports findings about the effects of optimal aerial and root-zone environments on plant growth. Second, liquid hydroponic systems are compared with lunar regolith as substrates for plant growth. Control of the root-zone environment is as important as the foliar environment. Although hydroponic culture is widely used to grow high-input specialty crops on the Earth, the vast majority of the world food supply is grown in field soil. Large amounts of food will be required to support a lunar colony, and it has been suggested that the lunar regolith could be modified to provide a better root-zone environment than flowing hydroponic systems.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c8 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c8
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Physical and chemical considerations for the development of lunar-derived soils

1989

P. A. Helmke,R. B. Corey

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth

Abstract

Lunar materials are logical sources from which to extract essential plant nutrients and to possibly use as a rooting medium. This chapter outlines the physical and chemical needs that a plant growing system must provide and how the lunar regolith might be used in providing those needs. Consideration of the drainage characteristics implies that the lunar regolith must undergo some processing to develop the proper range of particle sizes. Ionic strength and pH in soils are buffered by precipitation-dissolution phenomena and sorption-desorption reactions. Dissolution of lunar materials should provide sufficient calcium in lunar soils for plant growth. Maintaining optimum amounts of sulfur in lunar soils will require intensive management. This is especially so during the initial development and cropping of the lunar soils. The highest concentrations are found in soils derived from sedimentary rocks of marine origin, while the lowest concentrations are found in soils from basic rocks.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c15 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c15
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Utilization of white potatoes in CELSS

1989

Theodore W. Tibbitts,Susan M. Bennett,Robert C. Morrow,Raymond J. Bula

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) have a strong potential as a useful crop species in a functioning CELSS. The cultivar Denali has produced 37.5 g m-2 d-1 when grown for 132 days with the first 40 days under a 12-h photoperiod and a light:dark temperature cycle of 20 degrees C:16 degrees C, and then 92 days under continuous irradiance and a temperature of 16 degrees C. Irradiance was at 725 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF and carbon dioxide at 1000 micromoles mol-1. The dried tubers had 82% carbohydrates, 9% protein and 0.6% fat. Other studies have shown that carbon dioxide supplementation (1000 micromoles mol-1) is of significant benefit under 12-h irradiance but less benefit under 24 h irradiance. Irradiance cycles of 60 minutes light and 30 minutes dark caused a reduction of more than 50% in tuber weight compared to cycles of 16 h light and 8 h dark. A diurnal temperature change of 22 degrees C for the 12-h light period to 14 degrees C during the 12-h dark period gave increased yields of 30% and 10% for two separate cultivars, compared with plants grown under a constant 18 degrees C temperature. Cultivar screening under continuous irradiance and elevated temperatures (28 degrees C) for 8 weeks of growth indicated that the cvs Haig, Denali, Atlantic, Desiree and Rutt had the best potential for tolerance to these conditions. Harvesting of tubers from plants at weekly intervals, beginning at 8 weeks after planting, did not increase yield over a single final harvest. Spacing of plants on 0.055 centers produced greater yield per m2 than spacing at 0.11 or 0.22 m2. Plants maintained 0.33 meters apart (0.111 m2 per plant) in beds produced the same yields when separated by dividers in the root matrix as when no separation was made.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90028-8 pubmed: 11537391 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900288
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Utilization of sweetpotatoes in controlled ecological life support systems

1989

W.A. Hill, P.A. Loretan, C.K. Bonsi, C.E. Morris, J.Y. Lu, C. Ogbuehi

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

A number of studies have selected the sweet potato as a potentially important crop for CELSS. Most hydroponic studies of sweet potatoes have been short term (<80 days). Full term (90 to 150 days) studies of sweet potatoes in hydroponic systems were needed to understand the physiology of storage root enlargement and to evaluate sweet potato production potential for CELSS. Early and late maturing sweet potato varieties were grown in hydroponic systems of different types--static with periodic replacement, flowing with and without recirculation, aggregate and non-aggregate. In a flowing system with recirculation designed at Tuskegee University using the nutrient film technique (NFT), storage root yields as high as 1790 g were produced with an edible growth rate of up to 66 g m−2d−1 and a harvest index as high as 89% under greenhouse conditions. Preliminary experiments indicated high yields can be obtained in controlled environmental chambers. Significant cultivar differences were found in all systems studied. Nutritive composition of storage roots and foliage were similar to field-grown plants. The results indicate great potential for sweet potato in CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90026-4 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900264
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Controlled ecological life support system

1989

M.M. Averner

publication: Lunar Base Agriculture: Soils for Plant Growth (BOOK)

Abstract

Carbohydrate and fat make up nearly 90% of the energy sources of a normal human diet. Production of large amounts of water vapor by plants requires that air flow rates through the unit be high enough to maintain acceptable humidity levels. Upon leaving the plant growth unit, the dehumidified air is distributed and used in other subsystems of the life support system. The Breadboard Facility will implement the basic techniques and processes required for a controlled ecological life support system based on photosynthetic plant growth in a ground-based system of practical size. Simulation models are being developed to define system parameters pertaining to air and water reclamation, moisture condensation and vapor-liquid equilibrium, contaminant control, and oxygen removal. For long-duration missions, such as permanent Lunar or Mars bases, where logistics supply is costly or impractical, the development of a fully integrated bioregenerative life support system will be enabling.
link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c11
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Effect of iodine disinfection products on higher plants

1989

D. Janik,B. Macler,Y. Thorstenson,R. Sauer,R.D. MacElroy

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Iodine is used to disinfect potable water on United States spacecraft. Iodinated potable water will likely be used to grow plants in space. Little is known about the effects of iodine disinfection products on plants. Seeds of select higher plants were germinated in water iodinated using the Shuttle Microbial Check Valve, and water to which measured amounts of iodide was added. Percent germination was decreased in seeds of most species germinated in iodinated water. Beans were most affected. Germination rates, determined from germination half-times, were decreased for beans germinated in iodinated water, and water to which iodide was added. Development was retarded and rootlets were conspicuously absent in bean and several other plant species germinated in iodinated water. Iodide alone did not elicit these responses. Clearly iodine disinfection products can affect higher plants. These effects must be carefully considered for plant experimentation and cultivation in space, and in design and testing of closed environmental life support systems.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90035-5 pubmed: 11537380 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900355
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Life support systems research at the Johnson Space Center

1989

D. L. Henninger

publication: Lunar base agriculture: Soils for plant growth

Abstract

Life support systems research involving biological systems is just beginning at the Johnson Space Center and is directed at the development of a lunar-derived agricultural soil capable of supporting plant growth in a manner similar to the way soils support plant growth on Earth. Bioregenerative life support systems research at the Johnson Space Center is focused on the use of lunar regolith as a productive, resilient plant growth medium. The life support technology used on the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space missions used expendables. Since Shuttle flights are of short duration, the life support system continues to use expendables. A lunar base controlled ecological life support system would not only supply food to lunar base crews but could resupply food to human crews at other space locations such as space stations. Life support systems technology can be divided into three major groups: atmosphere management, water and waste management, and food management.
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c14 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c14
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The effect of total available photosynthetic photon flux on single truss tomato growth and production

1989

R.J. McAvoy, H.W. Janes, B.L. Godfriaux, M. Secks, D. Duchai, W.K. Wittman

publication: Journal of Horticultural Science

Abstract

The yield of tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Dombito, was compared under both supplemental high pressure sodium (HPS) lighting and natural greenhouse light conditions. HPS light (100 μ moles m−2s−1) was supplied over 18 hours daily (0400 to 2200 hours). All comparisons were made under single truss cropping conditions. A strong positive correlation (r=0.947) was observed between the total yield and total photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) received in the period from anthesis to harvest. Total PPF in the seedling stage (emergence to anthesis) was strongly correlated (r=−0.867) with timing of anthesis. Furthermore, changes in the leaf area ratio (LAR), specific leaf weight (SLW) and the relative growth rate (RGR) indicated that HPS lighting increased the rate of tomato seedling development without altering the basic pattern of development. The relationships, identified in this study, defining crop timing and crop yield represent the basis of a planning model that can be used for crop simulation and economic evaluation of the single truss system.
doi: 10.1080/14620316.1989.11515961 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14620316.1989.11515961
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Control of water and nutrient using a porous tube: A method for growth plants in space

1989

T.W. Dreschel, J.C. Sager

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

A plant nutrient delivery system that uses a microporous, hydrophilic tube was developed with potential application for crop production in the microgravity of space. The tube contains a nutrient solution and delivers it to the roots. Pumps attached to the tubing create a very small suction that holds the solution within the tube. This system was used to grow wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Yecora Rojo) for 107 days in a controlled environment at suctions of 0.40, 1.48, or 2.58 kPa. The water absorbed through the pores of the tube by baby diaper sections decreased as suction increased. Correspondingly, final plant biomass, seed number, and spikelet number also tended to decrease as suction increased. The reduced yield at higher suction suggests that the plants experienced water stress, although all suctions were below those typical of soils at field capacity.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.24.6.944 pubmed: 11540906 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/24/6/article-p944.xml
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Respiration rate in maize roots is related to concentration of reduced nitr ogen and proliferation of lateral roots

1989

T.C. Granato, C.D. Raper, G.G. Wilkerson

publication: Physiologia Plantarum

Abstract

The relationship between specific rate of respiration (respiration rate per unit root dry weight) and concentration of reduced nitrogen was examined for maize (Zea mays L.) roots. Plants with 2 primary nodal root axes were grown for 8 days in a split-root hydroponic system in which NO-3 was supplied to both axes at 1.0 mol m−3, to one axis at 1.0 mol m−3 and the other axis at 0.0 mol m−3 or to both axes at 0.0 mol m−3 Respiration rates and root characteristics were measured at 2-day intervals. Specific rate of respiration was positively correlated in a nonlinear relationship with concentration of reduced nitrogen. The lowest specific rates of respiration occurred when neither axis received exogenous NO−3 and the concentration of reduced nitrogen in the axes was less than 9 mg g−1. The greatest rates occurred in axes that were actively absorbing NO−3 and contained more than 35 mg g−1 of reduced nitrogen. At 23 mg g−1 of reduced nitrogen, below which initiation of lateral branches was decreased by 30–50%. specific rate of respiration was 17% greater for roots actively absorbing NO−3 than for roots not absorbing NO−3 Increases in specific rate of respiration associated with concentrations of reduced nitrogen greater than 23 mg g−1 were concluded to be attributable primarily to proliferation of lateral branches.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1989.tb06213.x link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1989.tb06213.x
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Effects of root zone acidity on utilization of nitrate and ammonium in tobacco plants

1989

Leslie Tolley Henry,C. David Raper

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L., cv. 'Coker 319') plants were grown for 28 days in flowing nutrient culture containing either 1.0 mM NO3- or 1.0 mM NH4+ as the nitrogen source in a complete nutrient solution. Acidities of the solutions were controlled at pH 6.0 or 4.0 for each nitrogen source. Plants were sampled at intervals of 6 to 8 days for determination of dry matter and nitrogen accumulation. Specific rates of NO3- or NH4+ uptake (rate of uptake per unit root mass) were calculated from these data. Net photosynthetic rates per unit leaf area were measured on attached leaves by infrared gas analysis. When NO3- [correction of NO-] was the sole nitrogen source, root growth and nitrogen uptake rate were unaffected by pH of the solution, and photosynthetic activity of leaves and accumulation of dry matter and nitrogen in the whole plant were similar. When NH4+ was the nitrogen source, photosynthetic rate of leaves and accumulation of dry matter and nitrogen in the whole plant were not statistically different from NO3(-) -fed plants when acidity of the solution was controlled at pH 6.0. When acidity for NH4(+) -fed plants was increased to pH 4.0, however, specific rate of NH4+ uptake decreased by about 50% within the first 6 days of treatment. The effect of acidity on root function was associated with a decreased rate of accumulation of nitrogen in shoots that was accompanied by a rapid cessation of leaf development between days 6 and 13. The decline in leaf growth rate of NH4(+) -fed plants at pH 4.0 was followed by reductions in photosynthetic rate per unit leaf area. These responses of NH4(+) -fed plants to increased root-zone acidity are characteristic of the sequence of responses that occur during onset of nitrogen stress.
doi: 10.1080/01904168909363995 pubmed: 11537085 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904168909363995
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Current and potential productivity of wheat for a controlled environment life support system

1989

B.G. Bugbee,F.B. Salisbury

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The productivity of higher plants is determined by the incident photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) and the efficiency of the following four physiological processes: absorption of PPF by photosynthetic tissue, carbon fixation (photosynthesis), carbon use (respiration), and carbon partitioning (harvest index). These constituent processes are analyzed to determine theoretical and potentially achievable productivity. The effects of optimal environmental and cultural factors on each of these four factors is also analyzed. Results indicate that an increase in the percentage of absorbed photons is responsible for most of the improvement in wheat yields in an optimal controlled environment. Several trials confirm that there is an almost linear increase in wheat yields with increasing PPF. An integrated PPF of 150 mol m-2 d-1 (2.5 times summer sunlight) has produced 60 g m-2 d-1 of grain. Apparently, yield would continue to increase with even higher PPF's. Energy efficiency increased with PPF to about 600 micromoles m-2 s-1, then slowly decreased. We are now seeking to improve efficiency at intermediate PPF levels (1000 micromoles m-2 s-1) before further exploring potential productivity. At intermediate and equal integrated daily PPF levels, photoperiod had little effect on yield per day or energy efficiency. Decreasing temperature from 23 degrees to 17 degrees increased yield per day by 20% but increased the life cycle from 62 to 89 days. We hope to achieve both high productivity and energy efficiency.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90024-0 pubmed: 11537390 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900240
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Validation of a computer model for a single-truss tomato cropping system

1989

R.J. McAvoy, H.W. Janes, G.A. Giacomelli, M.S. Giniger

publication: Journal of the …

Partial Abstract

The accuracy of a computer planning model for the management of a single-truss tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) production system was tested in the greenhouse. The model was used to generate a production schedule for 24 successive crops during a 15-month study. The time, in days, required for an emerging seedling to reach anthesis and the total fresh weight fruit yield were predicted for each of the 24 crops by the planning model. Correlation analysis, used to compare the expected crop response (ie, data generated by ...
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.114.5.746 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/114/5/article-p746.xml
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Transpiration during life cycle in controlled wheat growth

1989

Tyler Volk,John D. Rummel

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

We use a previously-developed model of wheat growth, which was designed for convenient incorporation into system-level models of advanced space life support systems. We apply the model to data from an experiment that grew wheat under controlled conditions and measured fresh biomass and cumulated transpiration as a function of time. We examine the adequacy of modeling the transpiration as proportional to the inedible biomass and an age factor, which varies during the life cycle. Results indicate that during the main phase of vegetative growth in the first half of the life cycle, the rate of transpiration per unit mass of inedible biomass is more than double the rate during the phase of grain development and maturation during latter half of the life cycle.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90029-x pubmed: 11537392 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311778990029X
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Development of a plant factory model: I The organizational and operational model

1989

R.J. McAvoy, H.W. Janes, G.A. Giacomelli

publication: International Symposium on Models for Plant Growth, Environmental Control and Farm Management in Protected Cultivation

Abstract

Our research has focused on the development of a crop growth model, and its incorporation into an organizational and operational planning model for the greenhouse production process. In Part I., an outline of the planning model of the greenhouse production process, which currently incorporates a plant production model, space planning and economic components, and will include components for labor, device and materials utilization, and space optimization, will be presented. The components of the model are organized into a hierarchical format as proposed by Challa et al (1985).
Part II. consists of a detailed description of a crop growth model for the single truss production system which can relate the total available photosynthetic photon fluence (PPF) to both crop timing and crop yield. It produces a production schedule, allocates greenhouse growing space and predicts the quantity and value of plant yields for continuous tomato production. The current model has been tested and verified. Additional refinements are proposed.

doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1989.248.7 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/248/248_7.htm
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Carbon balance and productivity of Lemna gibba, a candidate plant for CELSS

1989

J. Gale,D.T. Smernoff,B.A. Macler,R.D. MacElroy

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The photosynthesis and productivity of Lemna gibba were studied with a view to its use in Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS). Photosynthesis of L. gibba floating on the nutrient solution could be driven by light coming from either above or below. Light from below was about 75% as effective as from above when the stand was sparse, but much less so with dense stands. High rates of photosynthesis (ca. 800 nanomoles CO2 g dry weight (DW)-1 s-1) were measured at 750 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF and 1500 micromoles mol-1 CO2. This was attained at densities up to 660 g fresh weight (FW) m-2 with young cultures. After a few days growth under these conditions, and at higher densities, the rate of photosynthesis dropped to less than 25% of the initial value. This drop was only partly alleviated by thinning the stand or by introducing a short dark period at high temperature (26 degrees C). Despite the drop in the rate of photosynthesis, maximum yields were obtained in batch cultures grown under continuous light, constant temperature and high [CO2]. Plant protein content was less than reported for field grown Lemna. When the plants were harvested daily, maintaining a stand density of 600 g FW m-2, yields of 18 g DW m-2 d-1 were obtained. The total dry weight of L. gibba included 40% soluble material (sugars and amino acids), 15% protein, 5% starch, 5% ash and 35% cellulose and other polymers. We conclude that a CELSS system could be designed around stacked, alternate layers of transparent Lemna trays and lamps. This would allow for 7 tiers per meter height. Based on present data from single layers, the yield of such a system is calculated to be 135 g DW m-3 d-1 of a 100% edible, protein-rich food.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(89)90027-6 pubmed: 11537389 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117789900276
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Continuous hydroponic wheat production using a recirculating system

1989

C.L. Mackowiak, L.P. Owens, C.R. Hinkle, R.P. Prince

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Continuous crop production, where plants of various ages are growing simultaneously in a single recirculating nutrient solution, is a possible alternative to batch production in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System. A study was conducted at John F. Kennedy Space Center where 8 trays (0.24 sq m per tray) of Triticum aestivum L. Yecora Rojo were grown simultaneously in a growth chamber at 23 C, 65 percent relative humidity, 1000 ppm CO2, continuous light, with a continuous flow, thin film nutrient delivery system. The same modified Hoagland nutrient solution was recirculated through the plant trays from an 80 L reservoir throughout the study. It was maintained by periodic addition of water and nutrients based on chemical analyses of the solution. The study was conducted for 216 days, during which 24 trays of wheat were consecutively planted (one every 9 days), 16 of which were grown to maturity and harvested. The remaining 8 trays were harvested on day 216. Grain yields averaged 520 g m(exp -2), and had an average edible biomass of 32 percent. Consecutive yields were unaffected by nutrient solution age. It was concluded that continual wheat production will work in this system over an extended period of time. Certain micronutrient deficiencies and toxicities posed problems and must be addressed in future continuous production systems.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19900009537
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Use of Martian resources in a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS

1989

D.T. Smernoff, R.D. MacElroy

publication: Journal of the British Interplanetary Society

Abstract

The exploration of Mars has long been considered as a major goal in the exploration of the Solar system. The Space Station Freedom will make such missions feasible because it will provide a site for the assembly and launch of the large vehicles required. Interest in manned visits to Mars often focus on the possibility of collecting information about the origin of that planet, & hence of the solar system, including the Earth. Interest also involves the history of the planet, its past record of geological and fluvial activity, atmospheric and thermal history and surface chemical activity. The latter is of particular interest to exobiologists who would like to seek evidence of pre-biological physical and chemical activity involving organic molecules. Finally, there is interest in the possibility of planetary ecosynthesis, i.e. specific intervention in the evolution of Mars that could result in the development of a second habitable planet in the solar system. The scenarios for visits and the establishment of bases on Mars are being developed now. The intent of this paper is to consider various possibilities for crew life support on Mars and particularly to explore the use of Martian resources as life support materials.
pubmed: 11539075 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539075
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Hydroponic food production

1989

Julia Södergren,Christer U. Larsson,Lars Wadsö,Karl-Johan Bergstrand,Håkan Asp,Malin Hultberg,Jenny Schelin

publication: unknown
doi: 10.2134/1989.lunarbaseagriculture.c11
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Sweet potato for closed ecological life support systems using the nutrient film technique

1990

P.A. Loretan, W.A. Hill, C.K. Bonsi, C.E. Morris, J.Y. Lu, C.R.A. Ogbuehi, D.G. Mortley

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Sweet potatoes were grown hydroponically using the nutrient film technique (NFT) in support of the Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) program. Experiments in the greenhouse with the TI-155 sweet potato cultivar produced up to 1790 g/plant of fresh storage roots. Studies with both TI-155 and Georgia Jet cultivars resulted in an edible biomass index of approximately 60 percent, with edible biomass linear growth rates of 12.1 to 66.0 g m(exp -2)d(exp -1) in 0.05 to 0.13 sq meters in 105 to 130 days. Additional experimental results are given. All studies indicate good potential for sweet potatoes in CELSS.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022468
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Efficiency of N use by wheat as a function of influx and efflux of NO3

1990

R.C. Huffaker, M. Aslam, M.R. Ward

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Since N assimilation is one of the most costly functions of a plant, its efflux before assimilation results in a serious energy cost and loss in efficiency which could decrease yields. Efficient crop production is critical to the Closed Ecology Life Support System (CELSS). The objective is to determine the extent of efflux of the N species NO3(-), NH4(+), NO2(-), and urea after uptake, and possible means of regulation. Researchers found that NO3 efflux became serious as its substrate level increased. Efflux/Influx (E/I) of NO3(-) was greater in darkness (35 percent) than in light (14 percent), and the ratio greatly increased with substrate NO3 (-), (up to 45 percent at 10 mM). It seems advantageous to use the lowest possible nutrient concentration of NO3(-). The feasibility of using ClO3(-) was assessed and its toxicity determined.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022464
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Cyclic variations in nitrogen uptake rate in soybean plants: Uptake during reproductive growth

1990

J KEVIN VESSEY,C DAVID RAPER,LESLIE TOLLEY HENRY

publication: Journal of experimental botany

Abstract

Net uptake of NO3- by non-nodulated soybean plants [Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. Ransom] growing in flowing hydroponic culture was measured daily during a 63 d period of reproductive development between the first florally inductive photoperiod and [unknown word] seed growth. Removal of NO3- from a replenished solution containing 1.0 mol m-3 NO3- was determined by ion chromatography. Uptake of NO3- continued throughout reproductive development. The net uptake rate of NO3- cycled between maxima and minima with a periodicity of oscillation of 3 to 7 d during the floral stage and about 6 d during the fruiting stage. Coupled with increasing concentrations of carbon and C : N ratios in tissues, the oscillations in net uptake rates of NO3- are evidence that the demand for carbohydrate by reproductive organs is contingent on the availability of nitrogen in the shoot pool rather than that the demand for nitrogen follows the flux of carbohydrate into reproductive tissues.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/41.12.1579 pubmed: 11542205 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/41/12/1579/481565
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Utilization of the water soluble fraction of wheat straw as a plant nutrient source

1990

J.L. Garland, C.L. Mackowiak

publication: NASA …

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Plant Cultivation in a Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS)

1990

Makoto Kiyota, Yoshiaki Kitaya, Ichiro Aiga, Kazutoshi Yabuki, Masayuki Fujii, Yoshikatsu Tamori, Kimitoshi Horaguchi, Masaaki Morita

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

We looked at the basic specifications of a plant cultural system as a subsystem, in a closed ecological life support system (CELSS).
In order to confirm the possibility of plant culture under microgravity in space, the growth rates and morphological characteristics of lettuce and turnips cultivated upside down were investigated on Earth. Rooting beds were arranged above and below an array of fluorescent lamps. Plants were grown normally on the lower bed and upside down on the upper bed.
The results were as follows: the top fresh weight of lettuce in the lower and upper beds was 42 and 46 g /plant, respectively, 30 days after the treatment. For turnips, the fresh weight of leaves and the swollen root, in the lower and upper beds, was 60 and 66 g /plant, and the weight of the swollen root was 30 and 42 g /plant, respectively, 25 days after the treatment. The growth rate for both species grown in the upper beds tended to be slightly higher than those in the lower beds. In addition, there were no remarkable morphological differences between the lower and upper plots for either plants. The above facts show that phototropism can overcome geotropism. A PPFD of about 300 μE /m2 /s at the plant canopy is sufficient to ensure that vegetable crops such as lettuce and turnips grow normally, in the direction of a light source regardless of gravity direction.
A method of growing more plants in a small space is proposed. Our system is composed of small units and each unit is constructed of vertical panels supporting rooting beds arranged on two sides of an array of fluorescent lamps. Plants in these beds grow horizontally toward the lamps. Assuming that vegetable crops such as lettuce and turnips are cultivated at a planting density of 25 plants /m2, 200 plants can grow in each unit and 100 plants per 1m2 of the floor area.
In order to obtain basic data for the gas balance in the CELSS, the rates of CO2 absorption and O2 release for lettuce and turnips growing in this system were also estimated in this study.

link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku1989/2/1/2_1_51/_article/-char/en
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Human Requirements for Quality Life in Lunar Base

1990

T Fujii, Y Midorikawa, M Shiba, K Nitta

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

It is certain that in future space missions such as long–term stationing in a lunar base, the need for comfortable living quarters, quality varied meals, as well as exercise or sports, will become critically important for the crew's mental and physical well–being. Future lunar crews with clearly defined functions and tasks to be performed as part of a daily routine will have many hours of leisure time to spend reading, listening to music, watching TV or engaging in artistic activities including painting and playing musical instruments. This paper reports on the crew's needs for lunar base life in terms of food, clothing, housing, communication, and mental and physical requirements. We have divided each of these items, or sectors, into three parts; namely, basal life, passive pursuits, and active pursuits. It is our belief that human needs develop to a higher degree of freedom and options as the requirements expand from basal life to passive pursuits, and to active pursuits.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44472506
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Effects of atmospheric CO2 on photosynthetic characteristics of soybean leaves

1990

R.M. Wheeler, C.L. Mackowiak, J.C. Sager, W.M. Knott

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Soybean (Glycine max. cv. McCall) plants were grown at 500, 1000, and 2000 umol mol (exp -1) CO2 for 35 days with a photosynthetic photon flux of 300 umol m (exp -2) s (-1). Individual leaves were exposed to step changes of photosynthetic photon flux to study CO2 assimilation rates (CAR), i.e., leaf net photosynthesis. In general, CAR increased when CO2 increased from 500 to 1000 umol mol (exp -1), but not from 1000 to 2000 umol mol (exp -1). Regardless of the CO2 level, all leaves showed similar CAR at similar CO2 and PPF. This observation contrasts with reports that plants tend to become 'lazy' at elevated CO2 levels over time. Although leaf stomatal conductance (to water vapor) showed diurnal rhythms entrained to the photoperiod, leaf CAR did not show these rhythms and remained constant across the light period, indicating that stomatal conductance had little effect on CAR. Such measurements suggest that short-term changes in CO2 exchange dynamics for a controlled ecological life support system can be closely predicted for an actively growing soybean crop.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022466
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Preparatory space experiments for development of a CELSS In: R.D

1990

F.B. Salisbury

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

The goal of Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) studies is to examine the effects of microgravity on yield and quality of plant products and on the interactions between irradiance and crop area. Measuring yield and quality of crops as a function of irradiance in microgravity is virtually unique to the CELSS program, as is the emphasis on canopies rather than individual plants. The first step for space experiments is to develop a relatively stress free environment for plant growth, something that has so far never been achieved. High light levels are essential, and there must be time enough to complete a significant portion of the life cycle. Optimal atmosphere and nutrients must be provided. Such responses as germination, orientation of roots and shoots, photosynthesis and respiration, floral initiation and development, and seed maturation and viability will be studied.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022482
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Controlled environment life support systems (CELSS): A prerequisite for long-term space studies

1990

F.B. Salisbury

publication: Fundamentals of space biology

Partial Abstract

Controlled environmental life support systems (CELSS) : A prerequisite for long-term space studies | CiNii Research Controlled environmental life support systems (CELSS) : A prerequisite for long-term space studies Fundamentals of Space Biology ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1571135649100262656
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A porous stainless steel membrane system for extraterrestrial crop production

1990

Harold V. Koontz,Ralph P. Prince,Wade L. Berry

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

A system was developed in which nutrient flow to plant roots is controlled by a thin (0.98 or 1.18 mm) porous (0.2 or 0.5 microns) stainless steel sheet membrane. The flow of nutrient solution through the membrane is controlled by adjusting the relative negative pressure on the nutrient solution side of the membrane. Thus, the nutrient solution is contained by the membrane and cannot escape from the compartment even under microgravity conditions if the appropriate pressure gradient across the membrane is maintained. Plant roots grow directly on the top surface of the membrane and pull the nutrient solution through this membrane interface. The volume of nutrient solution required by this system for plant growth is relatively small, since the plenum, which contains the nutrient solution in contact with the membrane, needs only to be of sufficient size to provide for uniform flow to all parts of the membrane. Solution not passing through the membrane to the root zone is recirculated through a reservoir where pH and nutrient levels are controlled. The size of the solution reservoir depends on the sophistication of the replenishment system. The roots on the surface of the membrane are covered with a polyethylene film (white on top, black on bottom) to maintain a high relative humidity and also limit light to prevent algal growth. Seeds are sown directly on the stainless steel membrane under the holes in the polyethylene film that allow a pathway for the shoots.
pubmed: 11537562 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11537562
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Technology for subsystems of space-based plant growth facilities

1990

R.J. Bula, R.C. Morrow, T.W. Tibbitts, T.B. Corey

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Technologies for different subsystems of space-based plant growth facilities are being developed at the Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics, a NASA Center for the Commercial Development of Space. The technologies include concepts for water and nutrient delivery, for nutrient composition control, and for irradiation. Effort is being concentrated on these subsystems because available technologies cannot be effectively utilized for space applications.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022485
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Seed sprout production: Consumables and a foundation for higher plant growth in space

1990

M. Day, T. Thomas, S. Johnson, M. Luttges

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Seed sprouts can be produced as a source of fresh vegetable materials and as higher plant seedlings in space. Sprout production was undertaken to evaluate the mass accumulations possible, the technologies needed, and the reliability of the overall process. Baseline experiments corroborated the utility of sprout production protocols for a variety of seed types. The automated delivery of saturated humidity effectively supplants labor intensive manual soaking techniques. Automated humidification also lend itself to modest centrifugal sprout growth environments. A small amount of ultraviolet radiation effectively suppressed bacterial and fungal contamination, and the sprouts were suitable for consumption.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022476
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The conversion of lignocellulosics to fermentable sugars: A survey of current research and application to CELSS

1990

Gene R. Petersen,Larry Baresi

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

An overview of the options for converting lignocellulosics into fermentable sugars as applied to the Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) is given. A requirement for pretreatment is shown as well as the many available options. At present, physical/chemical methods are the simplest and best characterized options, but enzymatic processes will likely be the method of choice in the future. The use of pentose sugars by microorganisms to produce edibles at levels comparable to conventional plants is shown. The possible use of mycelial food production on pretreated but not hydrolyzed lignocelluloscis is also presented. Simple tradeoff analysis among some of the many possible biological pathways to regeneration of waste lignocellulosics was undertaken. Comparisons with complete oxidation processes were made. It is suggested that the NASA Life Sciences CELSS program maintain relationships with other government agencies involved in lignocellulosic conversions and use their expertise when the actual need for such conversion technology arises rather than develop this expertise within NASA.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022470
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Control of continuous irradiation injury on potatoes with daily temperature cycling

1990

Theodore W. Tibbitts,Susan M. Bennett,Weixing Cao

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Two controlled-environment experiments were conducted to determine the effects of temperature fluctuations under continuous irradiation on growth and tuberization of two potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars, Kennebec and Superior. These cultivars had exhibited chlorotic and stunted growth under continuous irradiation and constant temperatures. The plants were grown for 4 weeks in the first experiment and for 6 weeks in the second experiment. Each experiment was conducted under continuous irradiation of 400 micromoles per square meter per second of photosynthetic photon flux and included two temperature treatments: constant 18 degrees C and fluctuating 22 degrees C/14 degrees C on a 12-hour cycle. A common vapor pressure deficit of 0.62 kilopascal was maintained at all temperatures. Plants under constant 18 degrees C were stunted and had chlorotic and abscised leaves and essentially no tuber formation. Plants grown under the fluctuating temperature treatment developed normally, were developing tubers, and had a fivefold or greater total dry weight as compared with those under the constant temperature. These results suggest that a thermoperiod can allow normal plant growth and tuberization in potato cultivars that are unable to develop effectively under continuous irradiation.
doi: 10.1104/pp.93.2.409 pubmed: 11537703 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/93/2/409/6088681
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Environmental modification of yield and food composition of cowpea and leaf lettuce

1990

C.A. Mitchell, S.S. Nielsen, D. Bubenheim

publication: Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) and leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) are candidate species to provide ligume protein and starch or serve as a salad base for a nutritionally balanced and psychologically satisfying vegetarian diet in the Controlled Ecology Life Support System (CELSS). Various nutritional parameters are reported. Hydroponic leaf lettuce grew best under CO2 enrichment and photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) enhancement. Leaf protein content reached 36 percent with NH4(+) + NO3 nutrition; starch and free sugar content was as high as 7 or 8.4 percent of DW, respectively, for high PPF/CO2 enriched environments.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022463
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Exploring the limits of crop productivity: A model to evaluate progress

1990

B. Bugbee

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

The goal was to determine the limits of crop productivity when all environmental constraints were removed. Researchers define productivity as food output per unit of input. Researchers evaluated cultivars of wheat with reduced leaf size and number to decrease the leaf area index at high plant densities. These cultivars may also have an improved harvest index. Hydroponic studies indicate that 1 mM nitrate in solution is adequate to support maximum growth in these systems, provided iron nutrition is adequate. Wheat does not accumulate nitrate in leaves even when the solution nitrate concentration is 15 mM. Long-term photosynthetic efficiency (g mol (exp -1) of photons) and harvest index were not altered by photoperiod (16, 20, or 24 hours). Wheat does not need, nor benefit from, a diurnal dark period.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022462
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Photomorphogenesis and photoassimilation in soybean and sorghum grown under broad spectrum and blue-deficient light sources

1990

S J Britz,J C Sager

publication: Plant Physiology

Abstract

The role of blue light in plant growth and development was investigated in soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr. cv Williams) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench. cv Rio) grown under equal photosynthetic photon fluxes (approximately 500 micromoles per square meter per second) from broad spectrum daylight fluorescent or blue-deficient, narrow-band (589 nanometers) low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps. Between 14 and 18 days after sowing, it was possible to relate adaptations in photosynthesis and leaf growth to dry matter accumulation. Soybean development under LPS light was similar in several respects to that of shaded plants, consistent with an important role for blue light photoreceptors in regulation of growth response to irradiance. Thus, soybeans from LPS conditions partitioned relatively more growth to leaves and maintained higher average leaf area ratios (mean LAR) that compensated lower net assimilation rates (mean NAR). Relative growth rates were therefore comparable to plants from daylight fluorescent lamps. Reductions in mean NAR were matched by lower rates of net photosynthesis (A) on an area basis in the major photosynthetic source (first trifoliolate) leaf. Lower A in soybean resulted from reduced leaf dry matter per unit leaf area, but lower A under LPS conditions in sorghum correlated with leaf chlorosis and reduced total nitrogen (not observed in soybean). In spite of a lower A, mean NAR was larger in sorghum from LPS conditions, resulting in significantly greater relative growth rates (mean LAR was approximately equal for both light conditions). Leaf starch accumulation rate was higher for both species and starch content at the end of the dark period was elevated two- and three-fold for sorghum and soybean, respectively, under LPS conditions. Possible relations between starch accumulation, leaf export, and plant growth in response to spectral quality were considered.
doi: 10.1104/pp.94.2.448 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/94/2/448/6086178
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Biomass production and nitrogen dynamics in an integrated aquaculture / agriculture system

1990

L.P. Owens, C.R. Hall

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

A combined aquaculture/agriculture system that brings together the three major components of a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) - biomass production, biomass processing, and waste recycling - was developed to evaluate ecological processes and hardware requirements necessary to assess the feasibility of and define design criteria for integration into the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Breadboard Project. The system consists of a 1 square meter plant growth area, a 500 liter fish culture tank, and computerized monitoring and control hardware. Nutrients in the hydrophonic solution were derived from fish metabolites and fish food leachate. In five months of continuous operation, 27.0 kg of lettuce tops, 39.9 kg of roots and biofilm, and 6.6 kg of fish (wet weights) were produced with 12.7 kg of fish food input. Based on dry weights, a biomass conversion index of 0.52 was achieved. A nitrogen budget was derived to determine partitioning of nitrogen within various compartments of the system. Accumulating nitrogen in the hypoponic solution indicated a need to enlarge the plant growth area, potentially increasing the biomass production and improving the biomass conversion index.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022475
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A perspective on CELSS control issues

1990

A.L. Blackwell

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Some issues of Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) analysis and design are effectively addressed from a systems control perspective. CELSS system properties that may be elucidated using control theory in conjunction with mathematical and simulation modeling are enumerated. The approach that is being taken to the design of a control strategy for the Crop Growth Research Chamber (CGRC) and the relationship of that approach to CELSS plant growth unit subsystems control is described.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022480
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Plant and their microbial assistants: Nature's answer to Earth's environment pollution problems

1990

B.C. Wolverton

publication: NASA, Washington, Biological Life Support Technologies: Commercial Opportunities

Abstract

The utilization of higher plants and their associated microorganisms to solve environmental pollution problems on Earth and in future space applications is briefly reviewed. If man is sealed inside closed facilities, he becomes a polluter of the environment. It is also common knowledge to most people that man cannot survive on Earth without green photosynthesizing plants and microorganisms. Therefore, it is vitally important to have a better understanding of the interactions of man with plants and microorganisms. Biosphere 2 and other related studies presently being conducted or planned, hopefully, will supply data that will help save planet Earth from impending environmental disaster. The development of means to utilize both air and water pollution as a nutrient source for growing green plants is examined.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910004538
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Cyanobacteria in CELSS: Growth strategies for nutritional variation and nitrogen cycling

1990

I.V. Fry, L. Packer

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are versatile organisms which are capable of adjusting their cellular levels of carbohydrate, protein, and lipid in response to changes in the environment. Under stress conditions there is an imbalance between nitrogen metabolism and carbohydrate/lipid synthesis. The lesion in nitrogen assimilation is at the level of transport: the stress condition diverts energy from the active accumulation of nitrate to the extrusion of salt, and probably inhibits a cold-labile ATP'ace in the case of cold shock. Both situations affect the bioenergetic status of the cell such that the nitrogenous precursors for protein synthesis are depleted. Dispite the inhibition of protein synthesis and growth, photosynthetic reductant generation is relatively unaffected. The high O2 reductant would normally lead to photo-oxidative damage of cellular components; however, the organism copes by channeling the 'excess' reductant into carbon storage products. The increase in glycogen (28 to 35 percent dry weight increase) and the elongation of lipid fatty acid side chains (2 to 5 percent dry weight increase) at the expense of protein synthesis (25 to 34 percent dry weight decrease) results in carbohydrate, lipid and protein ratios that are closer to those required in the human diet. In addition, the selection of nitrogen fixing mutants which excrete ammonium ions present an opportunity to tailor these micro-organisms to meet the specific need for a sub-system to reverse potential loss of fixed nitrogen material.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022472
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Environmental and cultural considerations for growth of potatoes in CELSS

1990

T.W. Tibbitts, S.M. Bennett, R.C. Morrow

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

The white potato (Solanum tuberosum) was evaluated for use in the Closed Ecology Life Support System (CELSS) because of its high ratio of edible to inedible biomass and highly nutritious tuber that consists of readily digestible carbohydrates and proteins. Results are given for conditions that will produce the highest yields. The results, given in tabluar form, indicate the optimum temperatures, irradiance, carbon dioxide concentration, root environment, plant spacing, root and stolen containment, and harvesting times.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022465
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Solid-support substrates for plant growth at a lunar base

1990

D.W. Ming, C. Galindo, D.L. Henninger

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Zeoponics is only in its developmental stages at the Johnson Space Center and is defined as the cultivation of plants in zeolite substrates that contain several essential plant growth cations on their exchange sites, and have minor amounts of mineral phases and/or anion-exchange resins that supply essential plant growth anions. Zeolites are hydrated aluminosilicates of alkali and alkaline earth cations with the ability to exchange most of their constituent exchange cations as well as hydrate/dehydrate without change to their structural framework. Because zeolites have extremely high cation exchange capabilities, they are very attractive media for plant growth. It is possible to partially or fully saturate plant-essential cations on zeolites. Zeoponic systems will probably have their greatest applications at planetary bases (e.g., lunar bases). Lunar raw materials will have to be located that are suited for the synthesis of zeolites and other exchange resings. Lunar 'soil' simulants have been or are being prepared for zeolite/smectite synthesis and 'soil' dissolution studies.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022486
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Controlled ecological life support system Breadboard Project—1988

1990

W.M. Knott

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

The Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Breadboard Project, NASA's effort to develop the technology required to produce a functioning bioregenerative system, is discussed. The different phases of the project and its current status are described. The relationship between the project components are shown, and major project activities for fiscal years 1989 to 1993 are listed. The Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) became operational and tests of wheat as a single crop are nearing completion.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022477
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Potato growth and yield using nutrient film technique

1990

Raymond M. Wheeler,C. Ross Hinkle,Cheryl L. Mackowiak,John C. Sager,William M. Knott

publication: American potato journal

Abstract

Potato plants, cvs Denali and Norland, were grown in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) trays using a continuous flowing nutrient film technique (NFT) to study tuber yield for NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) program. Nutrient solution pH was controlled automatically using 0.39M (2.5% (v/v) nitric acid (HNO3), while water and nutrients were replenished manually each day and twice each week, respectively. Plants were spaced either one or two per tray, allotting 0.2 or 0.4 m2 per plant. All plants were harvested after 112 days. Denali plants yielded 2850 and 2800 g tuber fresh weight from the one- and two-plant trays, respectively, while Norland plants yielded 1800 and 2400 g tuber fresh weight from the one- and two-plant trays. Many tubers of both cultivars showed injury to the periderm tissue, possibly caused by salt accumulation from the nutrient solution on the surface. Total system water usage throughout the study for all the plants equaled 709 liters (L), or approximately 2 L m-2 d-1. Total system acid usage throughout the study (for nutrient solution pH control) equaled 6.60 L, or 18.4 ml m-2 d-1 (7.2 mmol m-2 d-1). The results demonstrate that continuous flowing nutrient film technique can be used for tuber production with acceptable yields for the CELSS program.
doi: 10.1007/BF02987070 pubmed: 11537254 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02987070
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System development and early biological tests in NASA's biomass production chamber

1990

R.M. Wheeler, C.L. Mackowiak, T.W. Dreschel, J.C. Sager, R.P. Prince, W.M. Knott, C.R. Hinkle, R.F. Strayer

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

INTRODUCTION With the continuing commitment by NASA's CELSS (Controlled Ecological Life Support System) Program to develop and evaluate a bioregenerative life support system, a need arose to construct a large test module for studying plant growth in an atmospherically sealed system. Construction of such a module, the Biomass Production Chamber or BPC, began at Kennedy Space Center, FL in the spring of 1985. Although heavy construction relating to the chamber air handling system, electric lighting, and plant ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=alA3AQAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA22&dq=System+development+and...
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Use of inedible wheat residues from the KSC-CELSS breadboard facility for production of fungal cellulase

1990

R.F. Strayer, M.A. Brannon, J.L. Garland

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Cellulose and xylan (a hemicellulose) comprise 50 percent of inedible wheat residue (which is 60 percent of total wheat biomass) produced in the Kennedy Space Center Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Breadboard Biomass Production Chamber (BPC). These polysaccharides can be converted by enzymatic hydrolysis into useful monosaccharides, thus maximizing the use of BPC volume and energy, and minimizing waste material to be treated. The evaluation of CELSS-derived wheat residues for production for cellulase enzyme complex by Trichoderma reesei and supplemental beta-glucosidase by Aspergillus phoenicis is in progress. Results to date are given.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022471
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Cloning crops in a CELSS via tissue culture: Prospects and problems

1990

J.G. Carman, J.R. Hess

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Micropropagation is currently used to clone fruits, nuts, and vegetables and involves controlling the outgrowth in vitro of basal, axillary, or adventitious buds. Following clonal multiplication, shoots are divided and rooted. This process has greatly reduced space and energy requirements in greenhouses and field nurseries and has increased multiplication rates by greater than 20 fold for some vegetatively propagated crops and breeding lines. Cereal and legume crops can also be cloned by tissue culture through somatic embryogenesis. Somatic embryos can be used to produce 'synthetic seed', which can tolerate desiccation and germinate upon rehydration. Synthetic seed of hybrid wheat, rice, soybean and other crops could be produced in a controlled ecological life support system. Thus, yield advantages of hybreds over inbreds (10 to 20 percent) could be exploited without having to provide additional facilities and energy for parental-line and hybrid seed nurseries.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022469
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Algae for controlled ecological life support system diet characterization of cyanobacteria “Spirulina” in batch culture

1990

M.G. Tadros

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Spirulina sp. is a bioregenerative photosynthetic and edible alga for space craft crews in a Closed Ecological Life Support System (CLESS). It was characterized for growth rate and biomass yield in batch cultures, under various environmental conditions. The cell characteristics were identified for one strain of Spirulina: S. maxima. Fast growth rate and high yield were obtained. The partitioning of the assimulatory products (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids) were manipulated by varying the environmental conditions. Experiments with Spirulina demonstrated that under stress conditions carbohydrate increased at the expense of protein. In other experiments, where the growth media were sufficient in nutrients and incubated under optimum growth conditions, the total proteins were increased up to almost 70 percent of the organic weight. In other words, the nutritional quality of the alga could be manipulated by growth conditions. These results support the feasibility of considering Spirulina as a subsystem in CELSS because of the ease with which its nutrient content can be manipulated.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022473
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Effects of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations on water and acid requirements of soybeans grown in a recirculating hydroponic system

1990

C.L. Mackowiak, R.M. Wheeler, W. Lowery, J.C. Sager

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

Establishing mass budgets of various crop needs, i.e. water and nutrients, in different environments is essential for the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS). The effects of CO2 (500 and 1000 umol mol (exp -1)) on water and acid use (for pH control) by soybeans in a recirculating hydroponic system were examined. Plants of cvs. McCall and Pixie were grown for 90 days using the nutrient film technique (NFT) and a nitrate based nutrient solution. System acid use for both CO2 levels peaked near 4 weeks during a phase of rapid vegetative growth, but acid use decreased more rapidly under 500 compared to 1000 umol mol (exp GR) CO2. Total system water use by 500 and 1000 umol mol (exp -1) plants was similar, leaving off at 5 weeks and declining as plants senesced (ca. 9 weeks). However, single leaf transpiration rates were consistently lower at 1000 umol mol (exp -1). The data suggest that high CO2 concentrations increase system acid (and nutrient) use because of increased vegetative growth, which in turn negates the benefit of reduced water use (lower transpiration rates) per unit leaf area.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022467
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Salad machine: A vegetable production unit for long duration space missions

1990

M. Kliss,R.D. MacElroy

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

Work completed to date within the NASA CELSS program suggests that the technologies needed for growing plants in the space environment are sufficiently well understood to allow an early application that would enhance the quality of life for the crew while they are in space. Specifically, the growth of salad vegetables on Space Station Freedom, and during other long duration missions, can provide psychological and dietary benefits to crewmembers. For this reason, a unit capable of producing 600 grams of edible salad vegetables, enough for one salad three times a week for a crew of four is being planned at the NASA Ames Research Center with the involvement of university scientists and engineers. Although the growth requirements for specific plants are well established, providing these requirements within the constraints of the space environment will demand preliminary space flight tests of selected technologies, and of some plant growth behaviors. This paper describes the plant growth requirements for specific salad vegetables, and the candidate subsystem technologies which are under consideration to achieve the plant growth requirements. Various subsystem options for nutrient delivery, lighting, water vapor condensation and recovery, and environmental control are assessed, and prototype design concepts which integrate these technologies into a production unit are presented. The potential application of Salad Machine technologies to future CELSS modules is also addressed.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44472534
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Plant culturing system in a lunar base

1990

S. Nishizaki, S. Yamasaki, Y. Miyata, Y. Seki, K. Sezaki, K. Nitta

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

Human beings will start permanent scientific and technological endeavours in the moon in the first decade of te next century. This paper reports the results of the study for developing the design method of plant culturing systems of the closed ecological life support system, or CELSS, in lunar base. From among conceivable plants, wheat, rice, potato, soy bean, butter head lettuce and spinach have been selected as plants to be cultivated. A cylindrical configuration of the culturing module, which is 4 m in diameter and 14.5 m long, has been selected. Conveniences to transportation in space and to installation in lunar base, and superior pressure proofness and air tightness are major advantages of the configuration. The hydroponical culturing system is provided with multistack culturing segments each of which has sand beds, artificial lightings, and irrigation lines. Double deckers are for cereal culturing and three deckers for the other crops. An overhead travelling robot serves to all the culturing segments for necessary culturing operations. Auxilliary equipments are located in the spaces at above and below the segments. A computerized processing system facilitates the realization of suitable ambients. The shape and the arrangements thus described with the total culturing area of 65.3 af per module should grow sufficient amounts of crops to sustain 1.63 inhabitants in lunar base.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku1989.2.38 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku1989/2/1/2_1_38/_article/-char/en
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Factors affecting plant growth in membrane nutrient delivery

1990

T.W. Dreschel, R.M. Wheeler, J.C. Sager, W.M. Knott

publication: NASA. Ames Research Center, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems: CELSS '89 Workshop

Abstract

The development of the tubular membrane plant growth unit for the delivery of water and nutrients to roots in microgravity has recently focused on measuring the effects of changes in physical variables controlling solution availability to the plants. Significant effects of membrane pore size and the negative pressure used to contain the solution were demonstrated. Generally, wheat grew better in units with a larger pore size but equal negative pressure and in units with the same pore size but less negative pressure. Lettuce also exhibited better plant growth at less negative pressure.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910022483
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The NASA vegematic

1990

David P. Hamilton

publication: Science

Partial Abstract

The NASA Vegematic It's salad days for astronauts, thanks to NASA engineers. For decades, astronauts have complained about the freeze-dried rations they're forced to eat in ...
doi: 10.1126/science.249.4964.21.e link: https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.249.4964.21.e
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Lunar farming: Achieving maximum yield for the exploration of space

1991

Frank B. Salisbury

publication: HortScience

Partial Abstract

can achieve maximum yield. We can define stress as any condition that results in less-than-maximum yield. Table 4 shows yields of wheat in the record field compared with yields of our ...
link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/previewpdf/journals/hortsci/26/7/article-p827.xml
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German CELSS research with emphasis on the C.E.B.A.S

1991

Bluem Volker,Kreuzberg Karlheinz

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

In general the German CELSS research program covers both animal and plant systems. In the field of botany a higher plant growth unit is disposed. The construction of a continuous culture device for unicellular algae in long-term multi-generation experiments will start in 1990. In zoology an experimental system for multi-generation experiments, the AQUARACK is already under construction and a running laboratory prototype is sorrounded by a wide-spread ground research program. The combination of the algae system with AQUARACK will result in a combined animal-plant system, the “Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System”, C.E.B.A.S. which may be the origin for further interdisciplinary research leading to an aquatic plant-animal-CELSS This research field is closely associated with cybernetical science because the development of the combined systems need simulation processes and highly sophisticated electronical control. A further point in the CELSS program is the study of biological waste management.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(91)90124-N link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009457659190124N
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Gaseous budgets of a plant cultural system in the CELSS

1991

Y. Kitaya, M. Kiyota, I. Aiga, K. Yabuki, K. Nitta, A. Ikeda, S. Nakayama

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Modification of yield and chlorophyll content in leaf lettuce by HPS radiation and nitrogen treatments

1991

Cary A. Mitchell,Tina Leakakos,Tameria L. Ford

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

This study evaluated the potential of high photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) from high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps, alone or in combination with metal halide (MH) plus quartz iodide (QI) incandescent lamps, to support lettuce growth, with or without N supplementation. Varying exposures to radiation from combined HPS, MH, and QI lamps influenced dry weight gain and photosynthetic pigment content of hydroponically grown Black-Seeded Simpson' lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seedlings. Cumulative leaf dry weight declined with increasing exposure, up to 20 hours per day, to 660 micromoles m-2 s-1 of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) from HPS lamps concomitant with constant 20 hours per day of 400 micromoles m-2 s-1 from MH + QI lamps. Leaves progressively yellowed with increasing exposure to radiation from the three-lamp combination, corresponding to lower specific chlorophyll content but not to specific carotenoid content. Lettuce grown under 20-hour photoperiods of 400, 473, or 668 micromoles m-2 s-1 from HPS radiation alone had the highest leaf dry weight at a PPF of 473 micromoles m-2 s-1. Chlorophyll, but not carotenoid specific content, decreased with each incremental increase in PPF from HPS lamps. Doubling the level of N in nutrient solution and supplying it as a combination of NH4+ and NO3- partially ameliorated adverse effects of high PPF on growth and pigment content relative to treatments using single-strength N as NO3-.
pubmed: 11537726 link: https://www.academia.edu/download/91492715/ca420959c3a7e8797fa1d3b37653d3ecdbfe.pdf
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Potassium concentrations effect on growth, gas exchange, and mineral accumulation in potatoes

1991

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

This study was conducted to evaluate the responses of potatoes to six K solution concentrations maintained with a flow-through nutrient film system. Potato plants were grown for 42 days in sloping shallow trays containing a 1 cm layer of quartz gravel with a continuous flow of 4 ml min-1 of nutrient solutions having K concentrations of 0.10, 0.55, 1.59, 3.16, 6.44, 9.77 meq L-1. Plant leaf area, total and tuber dry weights were reduced over 25% at 0.10 meq L-1 of K and over 17% at 9.77 meq L-1 of K compared to concentrations of 0.55, 1.59, 3.16 and 6.44 meq L-1 of K. Gas exchange measurements on leaflets in situ after 39 days of growth demonstrated no significant differences among different K treatments in CO2 assimilation rate, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO2 concentration, and transpiration. Further measurements made only on plants grown at 0.10, 1.59, 6.44 meq L-1 of K showed similar responses of CO2 assimilation rate to different intercellular CO2 concentrations. This suggested that the photosynthetic systems were not affected by different K nutrition. The leaves of plants accumulated about 60% less K at 0.10 meq L-1 of K than at higher K concentrations. However, Ca and Mg levels in the leaves were higher at 0.10 meq L-1 of K than at higher K concentrations. This indicates that low K nutrition not only reduced plant growth, but also affected nutrient balance between major cations.
doi: 10.1080/01904169109364222 pubmed: 11538369 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904169109364222
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Microbiological characterization of the Biomass Production Chamber during hydroponic growth of crops at the CELSS Breadboard Facility

1991

Richard F. Strayer

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

The initial goal of the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Breadboard Project is to develop and evaluate a ground-based bioregenerative system scaled to support the equivalent of one crew member. The Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) is the plant growing module of this project. We describe here the characterization of the microbial constituents of the BPC during production tests of hydroponically-grown crops of wheat and soybeans. Bacterial and fungal viable counts were determined for the hydroponic solution, dehumidifier condensate water, and atmosphere. Bacterial communities were characterized by taxonomic identification (Vitek AutoMicrobic System) of randomly selected isolates. For all crop tests, bacteria dominated the microflora of both the hydroponic solution (range-10⁴ to 10⁶ colony forming units [cfu] per mL), and dehumidifier condensate (10³ to 10⁶ cfu/mL). Occasional checks for total and fecal coliforms, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Legionella have consistently proven negative. Bacterial community composition studies have focused primarily on the root surface because over 95% of the BPC microbial load occurred in this habitat. The number of root surface isolates identified and predominant bacterial genera were: Wheat--540 isolates, Pseudomonas: soybean--1080 isolates, Achromobacter. The condensate isolates identified were similar for both crops--650 isolates, with Pseudomonas pickettii predominant. In-line filtration of the BPC atmosphere has resulted in very low microbial counts (ca. 3.3 to 330 cfu/m³).
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44547677
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Morphological responses of wheat to changes in phytochrome photoequilibrium

1991

Charles Barnes,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Wheat plants (Triticum aestivum L.) were grown at the same photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), 200 micromoles per square meter per second, but with phytochrome photoequilibrium (phi) values of 0.81, 0.55, and 0.33. Plants grown at phi values of 0.55 and 0.33 tillered 43 and 56%, less compared with plants grown at phi of 0.81. Main culm development (Haun stage) was slightly more advanced at lower values of phi, and leaf sheaths, but not leaf lamina, were longer at lower phi. Dry-mass accumulation was not affected by different levels of phi. Three levels of PPF (100, 200, and 400 micromoles per square meter per second) and two lamp types, metal halide and high pressure sodium, were also tested. Higher levels of PPF resulted in more dry mass, more tillering, and a more advanced Haun stage. There was no difference in plant dry mass or development under metal halide versus high pressure sodium lamps, except for total leaf length, which was greater under high pressure sodium lamps (49.5 versus 44.9 centimeters, P < 0.01).
doi: 10.1104/pp.97.1.359 pubmed: 11538375 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/97/1/359/6087162
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Investigating combustion as a method of processing inedible biomass produced in NASA's Biomass Production Chamber

1991

T.W. Dreschel, R.M. Wheeler, C.R. Hinkle, J.C. Sager, W.M. Knott

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

The Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Breadboard Project at the John F. Kennedy Space Center is a research program to integrate and evaluate biological processes to provide air, water, and food for humans in closed environments for space habitation. This project focuses on the use of conventional crop plants as grown in the Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) for the production and recycling of oxygen, food, and water. The inedible portion of these crops has the potential to be converted to edible ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=d1I3AQAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP7&dq=Investigating+combustio...
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Control of plant environments in space station

1991

T. Takano

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Light-emitting diodes as a radiation source for plants

1991

R.J. Bula,R.C. Morrow,T.W. Tibbitts,D.J. Barta,R.W. Ignatius,T.S. Martin

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Development of a more effective radiation source for use in plant-growing facilities would be of significant benefit for both research and commercial crop production applications. An array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that produce red radiation, supplemented with a photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 30 micromoles s-1 m-2 in the 400- to 500-nm spectral range from blue fluorescent lamps, was used effectively as a radiation source for growing plants. Growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. Grand Rapids') plants maintained under the LED irradiation system at a total PPF of 325 micromoles s-1 m-2 for 21 days was equivalent to that reported in the literature for plants grown for the same time under cool-white fluorescent and incandescent radiation sources. Characteristics of the plants, such as leaf shape, color, and texture, were not different from those found with plants grown under cool-white fluorescent lamps. Estimations of the electrical energy conversion efficiency of a LED system for plant irradiation suggest that it may be as much as twice that published for fluorescent systems.
pubmed: 11537727 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11537727
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Modeling light and temperature effects on leaf emergence in wheat and barley

1991

Tyler Volk,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Crop science

Abstract

Phenological development affects canopy structure, radiation interception, and dry matter production; most crop simulation models therefore incorporate leaf emergence rate as a basic parameter. A recent study examined leaf emergence rate as a function of temperature and daylength among wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cultivars. Leaf emergence rate and phyllochron were modeled as functions of temperature alone, daylength alone, and the interaction between temperature and daylength. The resulting equations contained an unwieldy number of constants. Here we simplify by reducing the constants by > 70%, and show leaf emergence rate as a single response surface with temperature and daylength. In addition, we incorporate the effect of photosynthetic photon flux into the model. Generic fits for wheat and barley show cultivar differences less than +/- 5% for wheat and less than +/- 10% for barley. Barley is more sensitive to daylength changes than wheat for common environmental values of daylength, which may be related to the difference in sensitivity to daylength between spring and winter cultivars. Differences in leaf emergence rate between cultivars can be incorporated into the model by means of a single, nondimensional factor for each cultivar.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1991.0011183x003100050028x pubmed: 11537630 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1991.0011183X003100050028x
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Pilot CELSS based on a maltose-excreting Chlorella: Concept and overview on the technological developments

1991

François Brechignac,Peter Schiller

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

A typical ecosystem is composed of three compartments: photosynthetic producer (anabolizing processes), consumer and decomposer (catabolizing processes). It is still far too much complex, however, to form the basis on which establishing an engineered artificial ecosystem, dedicated to support life (of the consumer) in space. A simpler, two compartments, pilot model to start with has been selected. It is based on a symbiotic Chlorella (strain 241.80), which can be tuned, at low pH, to produce maltose. This feature prevents the accumulation of useless biomass, not readily edible by the consumer. Being excreted, maltose is easily recoverable, and constitutes a direct source of carbon suitable for many consumers. Since they will totally catabolize it back to CO2, the necessity for a decomposer compartment is avoided. The present status of the technological concept designed to support life of small consumers (animals, microorganisms) will be presented, taking into account the space compatibility of the technologies developed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90006-J link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290006J
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Waste Management and Research

1991

Changping Zhao,Yingying Hou,Mengru Liu,Yu Gong,Junbin Wang

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Plants for water recycling, oxygen regeneration and food production

1991

David L. Bubenheim

publication: Waste management & research : the journal of the International Solid Wastes and Public Cleansing Association, ISWA

Abstract

During long-duration space missions that require recycling and regeneration of life support materials the major human wastes to be converted to usable forms are CO2, hygiene water, urine and feces. A Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) relies on the air revitalization, water purification and food production capabilities of higher plants to rejuvenate human wastes and replenish the life support materials. The key processes in such a system are photosynthesis, whereby green plants utilize light energy to produce food and oxygen while removing CO2 from the atmosphere, and transpiration, the evaporation of water from the plant. CELSS research has emphasized the food production capacity and efforts to minimize the area/volume of higher plants required to satisfy all human life support needs. Plants are a dynamic system capable of being manipulated to favour the supply of individual products as desired. The size and energy required for a CELSS that provides virtually all human needs are determined by the food production capacity. Growing conditions maximizing food production do not maximize transpiration of water; conditions favoring transpiration and scaling to recycle only water significantly reduces the area, volume, and energy inputs per person. Likewise, system size can be adjusted to satisfy the air regeneration needs. Requirements of a waste management system supplying inputs to maintain maximum plant productivity are clear. The ability of plants to play an active role in waste processing and the consequence in terms of degraded plant performance are not well characterized. Plant-based life support systems represent the only potential for self sufficiency and food production in an extra-terrestrial habitat.
doi: 10.1177/0734242X9100900162 pubmed: 11537696 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0734242X9190074H
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Plant spacing influences yield and linear growth rate of sweetpotatoes grown hydroponically

1991

D.G. Mortley, P.A. Loretan, C.K. Bonsi, W.A. Hill,C.E. Morris

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Sweet potatoes breeding clone TI-155 was grown hydroponically using the nutrient film technique with between-channel spacings of 13, 25 or 38 cm and within-channel spacings of 13, 18 or 25 cm. The number of storage roots/plant, storage root FW and DW and linear growth rate expressed as root area decreased linearly with decreasing between-channel spacing. Leaf FW and DW decreased linearly and quadratically with decreasing within-channel spacing. Neither linear growth rate expressed as canopy area nor the edible biomass index was significantly affected by either spacing.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19930762283
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Regenerative life support system development problems for the Mars mission

1991

V.N. Kubasov,E.N. Zaitsev,V.A. Korsakov,A.S. Gusenberg,A.A. Lepsky

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

An analysis of expediency of using physicochemical and biotechnological complexes of life-support systems has been performed with reference to the most likely trends of manned cosmonautics development for the nearest decades--orbital stations in the Earth orbit, Moon base, and Mars mission. The analysis results have shown that the physicochemical complex is much more advantageous than the biotechnological one for all cases considered. This conclusion is based on significant difference in power utilization factor: 70-90% for the physicochemical complex and 5-10% for the biotechnological one as far as the photosynthesis efficiency is concerned. The selection of the physicochemical complex systems is considered; particular attention is payed to operating reliability and performance.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(91)90127-q pubmed: 11537134 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009457659190127Q
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Carbon dioxide effects on potato growth under different photoperiods and irradiance

1991

Raymond M. Wheeler,Theodore W. Tibbitts,Ann H. Fitzpatrick

publication: Crop science

Abstract

Carbon dioxide concentration can exert a strong influence on plant growth, but this influence can vary depending on irradiance. To study this, potato plants (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars Norland', Russet Burbank', and Denali' were grown in controlled-environment rooms at different levels of CO2 and irradiance. Carbon dioxide levels were maintained either at 350 or 1000 micromoles mol-1 and applied in combination with 12- or 24-h photoperiods at 400 or 800 micromoles m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux. Air temperatures and relative humidity were held constant at 16 degrees C and 70%, respectively, and plants were harvested 90 d after planting. When averaged across all cultivars, CO2 enrichment increased tuber yield and total plant dry weight by 39 and 34%, respectively, under a 12-h photoperiod at 400 micromoles m-2 s-1; 27 and 19% under 12 h at 800 micromoles m-2 s-1; 9 and 9% under 24h at 400 micromoles m-2 s-1. It decreased dry weights by 9 and 9% under 24 h at 800 micromoles m-2 s-1. Tuber yield of Denali showed the greatest increase (21%) in response to increased CO2 across all irradiance treatments, while tuber yields of Russet Burbank and Norland were increased 18 and 9%, respectively. The results show a pattern of greater plant growth from CO2 enrichment under lower PPF and a short photoperiod.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1991.0011183x003100050026x pubmed: 11537629 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1991.0011183X003100050026x
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Increase in nitrate uptake by soybean plant during interruption of the dark period with low intensity light

1991

C. David Raper,J. Kevin Vessey,Leslie T. Henry

publication: Physiologia plantarum

Abstract

Diurnal patterns of net NO3- uptake by nonnodulated soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. Ransom] plants growing in flowing hydroponic culture at 26 and 16 degrees C root temperatures were measured at hourly intervals during alternate days of a 12-day growth period. Ion chromatography was used to determine removal of NO3- from the culture solution. Day and night periods of 9 and 15 h were used during growth. The night period included two 6-h dark periods and an intervening 3-h period of night interruption by incandescent lamps to effect a long-day photoperiod and repress floral initiation. At both root temperatures, the average specific rates of NO3- uptake were twice as great during the night interruption period as during the day period; they were greater during the day period than during the dark periods; and they were greater during the dark period immediately following the day period than during the later dark period that followed the night interruption. While these average patterns were repetitious among days, measured rates of uptake varied hourly and included intervals of net efflux scattered through the day period and more frequently through the 2 dark periods. Root temperature did not affect the average daily specific rates of uptake or the qualitative relationships among day, dark and night interruption periods of the diurnal cycle.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1991.tb02127.x pubmed: 11537675 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1991.tb02127.x
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Soybean stem growth under high-pressure sodium with supplemental blue lighting

1991

R. M. Wheeler,C. L. Mackowiak,J. C. Sager

publication: Agronomy journal

Abstract

High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are popular for plant lighting because of their high energy conversion efficiencies. Yet their spectrum has very little blue light (BL), which may cause undesirable morphological responses. To study this, McCall' soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] plants were grown for 28 d in growth chambers using HPS lamps, with or without supplemental light from blue phosphor fluorescent lamps. Total photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) levels (including blue fluorescent) were kept near 300 or 500 micromoles m-2 s-1. Blue fluorescent levels ranged from 7 to 20 micromoles m-2 s-1, providing from 6 to 18 micromoles m-2 s-1 of supplemental BL (400-500 nm). Stem and internode lengths were longest under 300 micromoles m-2 s-1 HPS lighting and became progressively shorter with increasing supplemental BL until a total of approximately 30 micromoles m-2 s-1 of BL (from HPS and BL supplement) was present in the spectrum. Beyond this, extra BL had no effect. Two other lamps rich in BL, metal halide (Optimarc) and fluorescent (Vita-Lite), also produced plants with short stems, as did HPS lighting maintained at 500 micromoles m-2 s-1. Results suggest that use of high-pressure sodium or other blue-deficient sources for lighting at low to moderate photosynthetic photon flux levels may cause abnormal stem elongation, but this can be prevented by adding a small amount of supplemental blue light.
doi: 10.2134/agronj1991.00021962008300050024x pubmed: 11537676 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj1991.00021962008300050024x
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Germination and growth of wheat in simulated Martian atmospheres

1991

Steven H. Schwartzkopf,Rocco L. Mancinelli

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

One design for a manned Mars base incorporates a bioregenerative life support system based upon growing higher plants at a low atmospheric pressure in a greenhouse on the Martian surface. To determine the concept's feasibility, the germination and initial growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum) was evaluated at low atmospheric pressures in simulated Martian atmosphere (SMA) and in SMA supplemented with oxygen. Total atmospheric pressures ranged from 10 to 1013 mb. No seeds germinated in pure SMA, regardless of atmospheric pressure. In SMA plus oxygen at 60 mb total pressure, germination and growth occurred but were lower than in the Earth atmosphere controls.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(91)90078-j pubmed: 11537561 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009457659190078J
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Physiological resonses in potato plants under continuous irradiation

1991

W. Cao, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The physiological responses of four potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars to continuous irradiation were determined in a controlled environment. Under a constant 18C and a constant photoperiod of 470 micromoles s-1 m-2 of photosynthetic photon flux, 'Denali' and 'Haig' grew well and produced large plant and tuber dry weights when harvested 56 days after transplanting. 'Kennebec' and 'Superior' were severely stunted, producing only 10% of the plant dry matter produced by 'Denali' and 'Haig'. The differences in leaf chlorophyll concentration and stomatal conductance were not consistent between these two groups of cultivars. The leaf net CO2 assimilation rates in 'Kennebec' and 'Superior' were lower, and intercellular CO2 partial pressures were higher than in 'Denali' and 'Haig'. These results indicate that inhibition of net CO2 assimilation in 'Kennebec' and 'Superior' was not due to a limiting amount of chlorophyll or to CO2 in the leaf tissues. Concentrations of starch in leaflets of 'Kennebec' and 'Superior' plants were only 10% of those in 'Denali' and 'Haig' plants, although soluble sugar concentrations were similar in the four cultivars. Therefore, the lower net CO2 assimilation rates in stunted 'Kennebec' and 'Superior' plants were not associated with an excess carbohydrate accumulation in the leaves.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.116.3.525 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/11808532_Physiological_Respons...
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Bioregenerative life support system: Farming on the Moon

1991

F.B. Salisbury

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

Plants can be used to recycle food, oxygen, and water in a closed habitat (e.g., on the moon, Mars, or in a space craft. A variety of crops might be grown, probably in underground growth units to avoid harmful radiation and micrometeorites. Artificial light will be necessary although some sunlight might be brought in via fiber optics. Transpired water will be condensed in coils exposed to space and shaded from sunlight. Oxygen and CO2 levels will be maintained by controlling photosynthesis and waste oxidation. Plants will be grown hydroponically. Wheat has been produced at the rate of 60 g m−2 d−1, which could feed a human continuously from a farm only 13 m2, but nearly continuous light equivalent to sunlight is required along with ideal temperatures, enriched CO2, suitable cultivars, etc. Lower light results in more efficient photosynthesis but requires a larger farm, as do safety considerations and many crops.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(91)90126-P link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009457659190126P
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CELSS system configuration and small plant cultivation chamber

1991

K Nitta, M Oguchi, K. Otsubo

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

Most important problem to create CELSS system to be used in space, such as Lunar Base or Manned Mars Spacecraft seems how to design and operate various material recycling subsystems in order to avoid material accumulation in the closed space constituting Lunar Base and Mars Spacecraft themselves.
Living creatures such as human beings and plants in the closed space become main parts of CELSS system, and metabolic functions of these creatures are to be fully supported by various material recycling subsystems.
Through recent studies about Lunar Base, one example of preferable CELSS configuration to be appled in Habitat Module and Plant Cultivation Module have been elucidated.
Material recycling subsystems to be installed in Plant Cultivation Module are to be composed of various systems such as dehumidifier, oxygen separation system, catalytic wet oxidation system, nitrogen fixation system including water electrolysis, ammonia and nitrate synthetic reactors and nutrient adjusting system including tanks and so on.
The required performances of such various material recycling subsystems are to be determined using precise metabolic data of various species of plants to be selected and experimented and using the transplanting sequence plan.
The plant metabolic data except for wheat and potato has not fully accumulated in the pesent stage, Therefore much of plant cultivation experiments are required to obtain such data for determining the performances of each material recycling subsystems introduced in Plant Cultivation Module.
In this papper, detailed explanations about preferable system configuration to be applied in Plant Cultivation Module and about the experimental chamber recently installed in National Aerospace Laboratory for obtaining basic metabolic data of plants are given.

doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku1989.3.10 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku1989/3/1/3_1_10/_article/-char/en
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Evaluation of sweet potato genotypes for adaptability to hydroponic systems

1991

D.G. Mortley, C.K. Bonsi, P.A. Loretan, C.E. Morris, W.A. Hill, C.R. Ogbuehi

publication: Crop Science

Abstract

Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam] is being grown with the nutrient film technique as part of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) program for long-termed manned space missions. Our objective was to evaluated the effects of two levels of photosynthetic photon flux (480 and 960 μmols m−2s−1 PPF) and three N/K ratios (1:1.1, 1:2.4, and 1:3.6) on yield of sweetpotato when grown using this technique. Vine cuttings (15-cm length) of ‘Georgia Jet’ and T1-155 were grown in each treatment for 90 or 120d, respectively, in controlled-environment growth chambers. Storage root growth for Georgia Jet and T1-155 increased with light intensity, while foliage growth decreased with high K levels. The number of storage roots produced by each plant increased with intensity only for Georgia Jet but was not significantly influenced by higher K levels for either cultivar. Light by N/K interactions were not significant. The level of PPF exerted a greater effect in enhancing sweetpotato storage root yield in nutrient film than did N/K ratio.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1991.0011183X003100030060x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1991.0011183X003100030060x
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Calcium localization in lettuce leaves with and without tipburn: Comparison of controlled environment and field grown plants

1991

Daniel J. Barta,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

An electron microprobe was used to determine tissue concentrations of Ca across 20-mm-long leaves of 'Green Lakes' crisphead lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) with and without tipburn injury. Concentrations within the fifth and 14th leaves, counted from the cotyledons, from plants grown under controlled-environment conditions were compared to concentrations within similar leaves obtained from plants grown under field conditions. Only the 14th leaf from plants grown under controlled-environment conditions developed tipburn. Injured areas on these leaves had Ca concentrations as low as 0.2 to 0.3 mg g-1 dry weight. Uninjured areas of tipburned leaves contained from 0.4 to 0.5 mg g-1 dry weight. Concentrations across the uninjured 14th leaf from field-grown plants averaged 1.0 mg g-1 dry weight. Amounts across the uninjured fifth leaves from both environments averaged 1.6 mg g-1 dry weight. In contrast, Mg concentrations were higher in injured leaves than in uninjured leaves and thus were negatively correlated with Ca concentrations. Magnesium concentrations averaged 4.7 mg g-1 dry weight in injured leaves compared with 3.4 mg g-1 dry weight in uninjured leaves from both environments. Magnesium concentrations were uniform across the leaf. Potassium concentrations were highest at the leaf apex and decreased toward the base and also decreased from the midrib to the margin. Potassium averaged 51 mg g-1 dry weight in injured and uninjured leaves from both environments. No significant differences in K concentration were present between injured and uninjured leaves. This study documented that deficient concentrations of Ca were present in areas of leaf tissue developing tipburn symptoms and that concentrations were significantly higher in similar areas of other leaves that had no symptoms. This study also documented that Ca concentrations were significantly lower in enclosed leaves that exhibited tipburn symptoms than in exposed leaves that did not exhibit tipburn. Also, the amounts of Ca in plants that developed tipburn in controlled environments were lower than in plants of the same cultivar that did not develop tipburn in field plantings. The reduced levels of Ca in plants grown in controlled environments were associated with faster development rates compared with field-grown plants.
pubmed: 11538112 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/11808560_Calcium_Localization_...
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Crop growth and associated life support for a lunar farm

1992

T. Volk, H. Cullingford

publication: The Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century, Volume 2

Abstract

Supporting human life on a lunar base will require growing many different food crops. This paper investigates the growth dynamics of four crops (wheat, soybeans, potatoes, and lettuce) for general similarities and differences, along with associated material flows of the gases, liquids, and solids in a lunar farm. The human dietary requirements are compared with the protein, carbohydrate, and lipid contents of these hydroponically grown, high-productivity crops to derive a lunar farm diet. A simple and general analytical model is used to calculate the mass fluxes of CO2, H2O, HNO3, and O2 during the life cycle of each of the four crops. The resulting farm crop areas and corresponding biomass production rates are given. One significant conclusion of this study is that there is a 'lipid problem' associated with the incorporation of these four crops into a viable diet.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19930004806
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Lighting design of plant cultivation system using fluorescent lamps

1992

A Ikeda, Y Tanimura, K Esaki, Y Kawaai, S Nakayama

publication: Acta Horticulturae

Abstract

A method for increasing the light utilization efficiency of a growth chamber was investigated. Fluorescent tubes were set 30 cm above the cultivation panel and the walls coated with a highly reflective paint to use the reflected light (close illumination) effectively. The coefficient of utilization (U) was about 1.4 which was nearly 2.5 times higher than conventional sodium lamps set at a height of 80 cm. The value of U increased when the room shape coefficient decreased. Since the room coefficient was proportional to the lamp height, close illumination increased the value of U.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19950313376
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Scenarios for optimizing potato productivity in a lunar CELSS

1992

R.M. Wheeler, R.C. Morrow, T.W. Tibbitts, R.J. Bula

publication: NASA. Johnson Space Center, The Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century, Volume 2

Abstract

The use of controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) in the development and growth of large-scale bases on the Moon will reduce the expense of supplying life support materials from Earth. Such systems would use plants to produce food and oxygen, remove carbon dioxide, and recycle water and minerals. In a lunar CELSS, several factors are likely to be limiting to plant productivity, including the availability of growing area, electrical power, and lamp/ballast weight for lighting systems. Several management scenarios are outlined in this discussion for the production of potatoes based on their response to irradiance, photoperiod, and carbon dioxide concentration. Management scenarios that use 12-hr photoperiods, high carbon dioxide concentrations, and movable lamp banks to alternately irradiate halves of the growing area appear to be the most efficient in terms of growing area, electrical power, and lamp weights. However, the optimal scenario will be dependent upon the relative 'costs' of each factor.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19930004809
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Water relations, gas exchange, and nutrient response to a long-term constant water deficit

1992

WADE L. BERRY,GUILLERMO GOLDSTEIN,THOMAS W. DRESCHEL,RAYMOND M. WHEELER,JOHN C. SAGER,WILLIAM M. KNOTT

publication: Soil science

Abstract

Wheat plants (Triticum aestivum) were grown for 43 days in a micro-porous tube nutrient delivery system. Roots were unable to penetrate the microporous tube, but grew on the surface and maintained capillary contact with the nutrient solution on the inside of the tube through the 5-micron pores of the porous tube. Water potential in the system was controlled at -0.4, -0.8, and -3.0 kPa by adjusting the applied pressure (hydrostatic head) to the nutrient solution flowing through the microporous tubes. A relatively small decrease in applied water potential from -0.4 to -3.0 kPa resulted in a 34% reduction of shoot growth but only a moderate reduction in the midday leaf water potential from -1.3 to -1.7 MPa. Carbon dioxide assimilation decreased and water use efficiency increased with the more negative applied water potentials, while intercellular CO2 concentration remained constant. This was associated with a decrease in stomatal conductance to water vapor from 1.90 to 0.98 mol m-2 s-1 and a decrease in total apparent hydraulic conductance from 47 to 12 micromoles s-1 MPa-1. Although the applied water potentials were in the -0.4 to -3.0 kPa range, the actual water potential perceived by the plant roots appeared to be in the range of -0.26 to -0.38 MPa as estimated by the leaf water potential of bagged plants. The amount of K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, and B accumulated with each unit of transpired water increased as the applied water potential became less negative. The increase in accumulation ranged from 1.4-fold for K to 2.2-fold for B. The physiological responses observed in this study in response to small constant differences in applied water potentials were much greater than expected from either the applied water potential or the observed plant water potential. Even though the micro-porous tube may not represent natural conditions and could possibly introduce morphological and physiological artifacts, it enables a high degree of control of water potential that facilitates the investigation of many aspects of water relations not practical with other experimental systems.
doi: 10.1097/00010694-199206000-00003 pubmed: 11538048 link: https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/abstract/1992/06000/WATER_RELATIONS,_GAS_EXCHANGE,_AND_NUTRIENT.3.aspx
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Importance of blue photon levels for lettuce seedlings grown under red-light-emitting diodes

1992

M.E. Hoenecke,R.J. Bula,T.W. Tibbitts

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with high-intensity output are being studied as a photosynthetic light source for plants. High-output LEDs have peak emission at approximately 660 nm concentrated in a waveband of +/- 30 nm. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa Grand Rapids') seedlings developed extended hypocotyls and elongated cotyledons when grown under these LEDs as a sole source of irradiance. This extension and elongation was prevented when the red LED radiation was supplemented with more than 15 micromoles m-2 s-1 of 400- to 500-nm photons from blue fluorescent lamps. Blue radiation effects were independent of the photon level of the red radiation.
pubmed: 11537611 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11537611
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Biological life support systems for Mars mission

1992

Josef I. Gitelson

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Mars mission like the Lunar base is the first venture to maintain human life beyond earth biosphere. So far, all manned space missions including the longest ones used stocked reserves and can not be considered egress from biosphere. Conventional path proposed by technology for Martian mission LSS is to use physical-chemical approaches proved by the experience of astronautics. But the problem of man living beyond the limits of the earth biosphere can be fundamentally solved by making a closed ecosystem for him. The choice optimum for a Mars mission LSS can be substantiated by comparing the merits and demerits of physical-chemical and biological principles without ruling out possible compromise between them. The work gives comparative analysis of ecological and physical-chemical principles for LSS. Taking into consideration universal significance of ecological problems with artificial LSS as a particular case of their solution, complexity and high cost of large-scale experiments with manned LSS, it would be expedient for these works to have the status of an International Program open to be joined. A program of making artificial biospheres based on preceding experience and analysis of current situation is proposed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90023-q pubmed: 11537063 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290023Q
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[citation] Performance of lettuce in gray-water streams

1992

K. Wignarajah, D. Bubenheim, T. Wydeven

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Artificial radiant sources for a plant cultural sub-system in CELSS

1992

K. Horaguchi, K. Murakami, M. Morita, M. Takahashi, H. Shibata, M. Kiyota, I. Aiga

publication: CELSS J.

Partial Abstract

Artificial radiant sources for a plant cultural sub-system in CELSS | CiNii Research Artificial radiant sources for a plant cultural sub-system in CELSS CELSS J. 5 (1), 29-36, 1992 ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1570291225433351040
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Engineering verification of the Biomass Production Chamber

1992

R.P. Prince, W.M. Knott III, J.C. Sager, J.D. Jones

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

The requirements for life support systems, both biological and physical-chemical, for long-term human attended space missions are under serious study throughout NASA. The KSC 'breadboard' project has focused on biomass production using higher plants for atmospheric regeneration and food production in a special biomass production chamber. This chamber is designed to provide information on food crop growth rate, contaminants in the chamber that alter plant growth requirements for atmospheric regeneration, carbon dioxide consumption, oxygen production, and water utilization. The shape and size, mass, and energy requirements in relation to the overall integrity of the biomass production chamber are under constant study.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19930004808
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Gas exchange and growth of plants under reduced air pressure

1992

H.-J. Daunicht,H.-J. Brinkjans

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

This paper begins with a brief review of the few reports on methods and results on growing plants at reduced air pressure. Then a new experimental set-up developed by the authors is described and discussed. This set-up permits growth of plants to a total height of 35 cm. Climatic conditions and gas pressures are carefully controlled and CO2-consumption is measured. Results with tomato plants by lowering air pressure to 400 and 700 hPa are reported and compared to plants maintained at 1000 hPa. These studies showed some growth reductions, morphological changes, and enhanced transpiration at 400 hPa.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90016-Q link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290016Q
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Prevention of lettuce tipburn by supplying air to inner leaves

1992

E. Goto, T. Takakura

publication: Transactions of the ASAE

Abstract

Growing environments were controlled to prevent or reduce lettuce tipburn, a physiological disorder in inner developing leaves around a growing point caused by calcium deficiency. Lettuce (Lactuna sativa, L.) of butter head type was grown by hydroponics in a controlled-environment room which had heaters, humidifiers, a refrigerator, electric lamps, and a CO2 control apparatus. With air pumps and flexible pipes, room air was blown onto inner developing leaves totally or partially enclosed by the outer leaves. After transplanting, lettuce plants were exposed to various air supply conditions. Air temperature and RH were 24 C and 85%, respectively, in the light period, and 20 C and 85% in the dark. The PPF was 264 mmol m2sl, and light period was 14 hours. The CO2 concentration was 1500 mmol mol1. Temperature of the nutrient solution was constant at 20 C, pH was 5.8-6.2, and EC was 150 mS/m. The effects of various conditions on tipburn development were studied in relation to growth rate. Air supply to inner leaves prevented tipburn completely up to 60 g f.w., though tipburn occurred at approximately 15 g f.w. in the control. All-day air supply was more effective in preventing tipburn than air supply in the light period or the dark period alone. Air supply to inner developing leaves was proved effective in preventing tipburn without sacrificing a rapid growth rate. The reason for the effect was an increase in transpiration from the leaves encouraged water and calcium uptake by the root and increased calcium concentration in the leaves.
doi: 10.13031/2013.28644 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=28644
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Sweetpotato technology for the 21st century

1992

W.A. Hill, C.K. Bonsi, P.A. Loretan

publication: Conference proceedings: Sweetpotato technology for the 21st century.

Abstract

This book includes the major papers presented at an international conference on sweet potato research held at Tuskegee University in 1991. The papers are arranged in 5 sections, each with its own poster presentations: genetic engineering (8 papers + 5 posters); growing systems (7 + 10); developmental physiology and biochemistry (8 + 4); food technology/human nutrition (9 + 8); and interfacing new technologies with conventional breeding (9 + 3). The book concludes with sweet potato recipes from Taiwan, Ghana, Guyana, India, Japan and the USA.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19950713819
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Detailed test report for regenerative life support systems test bed lettuce characterization crop I

1992

D. Henninger, D. Barta, C. Clark, M. Edeen, R. Spanarkel, T. Tri

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Long-term lunar stations: Some ecological considerations

1992

B. Maguire, K.W. Scott

publication: NASA. Johnson Space Center, The Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century, Volume 2

Abstract

A major factor for long-term success of a lunar station is the ability to keep an agroecosystem functioning at a desirable, stable steady-state with ecological stability and reliability. Design for a long-lived extraterrestrial manned station must take into account interactions among its subsystems to insure that overall functionality is enhanced (or at least not compromised). Physical isolation of feed production, human living areas, recycling, and other systems may be straightforward, however, microbiological isolation will be very difficult. While it is possible to eliminate plant-associated microbiological communities by growing the plants asepticallly, it is not practical to keep plants germ-free on a large scale if humans are working with them. Ecological theory strongly suggests that some kinds of communities or organisms effectively increase the stability of ecosystems and will protect the plants from potential pathogens. A carefully designed and maintained (lunar-derived) soil can provide a variety of habitats for effective microbial buffers while adding structure to the agroecosystem. A soil can also increase ecosystem reliability through buffering otherwise large element and compound fluctuations (of nutrients, wastes, etc.) as well as buffering temperature level and atmosphere composition. We are doing experiments in ecological dynamics and attempting to extend the relevant theories.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19930004807
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Lunar base CELSS: A bioregenerative approach

1992

G.W. Easterwood, J.J. Street, J.B. Sartain, D.H. Hubell, H.A. Robitaille

publication: NASA. Johnson Space Center, The Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century, Volume 2

Abstract

During the twenty-first century, human habitation of a self-sustaining lunar base could become a reality. To achieve this goal, the occupants will have to have food, water, and an adequate atmosphere within a carefully designed environment. Advanced technology will be employed to support terrestrial life-sustaining processes on the Moon. One approach to a life support system based on food production, waste management and utilization, and product synthesis is outlined. Inputs include an atmosphere, water, plants, biodegradable substrates, and manufacutured materials such as fiberglass containment vessels from lunar resources. Outputs include purification of air and water, food, and hydrogen (H2) generated from methane (CH4). Important criteria are as follows: (1) minimize resupply from Earth; and (2) recycle as efficiently as possible.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19930004805
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The role of horticulture in human well-being and social development

1992

D. Relf

publication: The role of horticulture in human well-being and social development (BOOK)

Abstract

Papers are presented from a national symposium on the subject held at Arlington, Virginia, USA, on 19-21 Apr. 1990 which aimed to establish a research initiative on human issues in ornamental horticulture, develop a system to communicate the research to a comprehensive audience, and work towards the application of the research findings. Researchers in varied disciplines, including horticulture, psychology and sociology, have recently begun to explore the intricacies and significance of the people-plant interaction, and aspects are discussed in 40 papers and 15 abstracts in the following sections: plants and human culture; plants and the community; plants and the individual; developing a conceptual framework; exploring a specific application: horticultural therapy; research implementation; and a look at the future: developing a research initiative. There are appendices providing a symposium overview and moderators' and authors' addresses.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19940301708
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Life support systems for Mars transit

1992

R.D. MacElroy,M. Kliss,C. Straight

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The long-held human dream of travel to the stars and planets will probably be realized within the next quarter century. Preliminary analyses by U.S. scientists and engineers suggests that a first trip to Mars could begin as early as 2016. A proposal by U.S.S.R. space planners has suggested that an effort involving the cooperation and collaboration of many nations could begin by 2011. Among the major considerations that must be made in preparation for such an excursion are solidification of the scientific, economic and philosophical rationales for such a trip made by humans, and realistic evaluations of current and projected technical capabilities. Issues in the latter category include launch and propulsion systems, long term system stability and reliability, the psychological and physiological consequences of long term exposure to the space environment, the development and use of countermeasures to deleterious human physiological responses to the space environment, and life support systems that are both capable of the immense journey and reliable enough to assure their continued operation for the duration of the voyage. Many of the issues important in the design of a life support system for a Mars trip are based on reasonably well understood data: the human requirements for food, oxygen and water. However, other issues are less well-defined, such as the demands that will be made on the system for personal cleanliness and hygiene, environmental cleanliness, prevention or reduction of environmental toxins, and psychological responses to the environment and to the diet. It is much too early to make final decisions about the characteristics of the long-duration life support system needed for travel to Mars, or for use on its surface. However, it is clear that life support systems will evolve during the next few decades form the relatively straightforward systems that are used on Shuttle and Soyuz, to increasingly more complex and regenerative systems. The Soviet Union has an operating life support system on Mir that can apparently evolve, and the United States is currently planning the one for Space Station Freedom that will use partial regeneration. It is essential to develop concepts now for life support systems on an advanced Space Station, the lunar outpost (to be launched in about 2004) and the lunar base. Such concepts will build on current technology and capabilities. But because of the variety of different technologies that can be developed, and the potential for coordinating the functions of very diverse sub-systems within the same life support system, the possibility of developing an efficient, reliable mixed process system is high. It is likely that a life support system for Mars transit and base will use a composite of physical, chemical, and biological processes. The purpose of this paper is to explore the potentially useful structural elements of a life support system for use on a Mars trip, and to identify the features that, at this time, appear to be most appropriate for inclusion in the system.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90022-p pubmed: 11537062 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S009457650400150X
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Carbon dioxide and oxygen budgets of plant cultural systems in a CELSS—A case of cultivation of lettuce and turnips

1992

Y. Kitaya,M. Kiyota,I. Aiga,K. Yabuki,K. Nitta,A. Ikeda,S. Nakayama

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

In order to collect basic data about CO2 and O2 budgets of a plant cultural system in a CELSS, the variation of the CO2 absorption rates of lettuce and turnips were observed during the growing period, under different conditions. The O2 release rates were deduced from the CO2 absorption rates multiplied by 32/44. As a result, when the light intensity, the photoperiod and the atmospheric CO2 concentration increased, the rates also increased. The effects on the turnips were more significant than those on the lettuce. Turnips at 310 micromoles/m2/s of PPFD, 24 hours of photoperiod and 1100 ppm of CO2 concentration grew most actively in the present experimental conditions. One turnip absorbed 32.3 g CO2 and released 23.5 g O2 for 6 days between 24 days and 30 days after sowing.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90007-k pubmed: 11537075 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290007K
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Achieving and documenting closure in plant growth facilities

1992

William M. Knott,John C. Sager,Ray Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

As NASA proceeds with its effort to develop a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) that will provide life support to crews during long duration space missions, it must address the question of facility and system closure. Here we discuss the concept of closure as it pertains to CELSS and describe engineering specifications, construction problems and monitoring procedures used in the development and operation of a closed plant growth facility for the CELSS program. A plant growth facility is one of several modules required for a CELSS. A prototype of this module at Kennedy Space Center is the large (7m tall x 3.5m diameter) Biomass Production Chamber (BPC), the central facility of the CELSS Breadboard Project. The BPC is atmospherically sealed to a leak rate of approximately 5% of its total volume per 24 hours. This paper will discuss the requirements for atmospheric closure in this facility, present CO2 and trace gas data from initial tests of the BPC with and without plants, and describe how the chamber was sealed atmospherically. Implications that research conducted in this type of facility will have for the CELSS program are discussed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90017-r pubmed: 11537057 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290017R
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Response of sweetpotatoes to continuous light

1992

C.K. Bonsi, P.A. Loretan, W.A. Hill, D.G. Mortley

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Sweet potatoes cv. TI0155, GA 120 and Georgia Jet plants were exposed to continuous light or 12 h light/12 h darkness at irradiance of 360-400 µmol/m-2 s-1 and temp. of 28°C in light and 22° in darkness or 28 and 22 ° for 12 h each in continuous light. Plants were harvested 112 d after planting. When exposed to continuous light, plants of all 3 cultivars produced more storage roots and higher FW, fibrous root and foliage DW than those kept in the 12-h photoperiod. The latter had fewer but larger and well-expanded leaves. While continuous light did not inhibit successful storage root initiation and enlargement in the cultivars used, the doubling of the quantity of photosynthetic photons received by plants in continuous light may have accounted for the increased yields, irrespective of daylength effects.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19930320550
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Gas exchange in NASA’s biomass production chamber. A preprototype closed human life support system

1992

Kenneth A. Corey,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Bioscience

Abstract

An important aspect of environmental control in a life-support system is the monitoring and regulation of atmospheric gases (Sager et al. 1988) at concentrations required for the maintenance of all life forms. It will be necessary to know the rates of CO2 use, oxygen evolution, and water flux through evapotranspiration by a crop stand under various environmental conditions, so that appropriate designs and control systems for maintaining mass balances of those gases can be achieved for a full range of environmental regimes. Mass budgets of gases will also enable evaluation of crop health by monitoring directly the rates of gas exchange and indirectly the rate of accumulation of dry matter, based on rates of carbon dioxide use. This article focuses on the unique capabilities of the NASA biomass production chamber for monitoring and evaluating gas exchange rates, with special emphasis on results with wheat and soybean, two candidate species identified by NASA for CELSS.
doi: 10.2307/1311880 pubmed: 11537404 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311880
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Constructing specialized plant growth chambers for gas-exchange research: considerations and concerns

1992

S.L. Knight

publication: HortScience

Partial Abstract

Specialized chambers for whole-plant gas exchange have been constructed by individual researchers to provide capabilities that are otherwise difficult to achieve in typical commercial chambers. For example, many investigators have built controlled-environment chambers to measure gas exchange of whole-plant canopies in completely isolated environments to determine how CO, assimilation is affected by hydrocarbons such as ethylene, or to determine the effects of toxic chemical-plant interactions (Akers et al., 1985; ...
link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/previewpdf/journals/hortsci/27/7/article-p767.xml
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Effects of Spaceflight on Growth and Cell Division in Higher Plants

1992

Abraham D. Krikorian,Howard G. Levine,Robert P. Kann,Stefania A. O'Connor

publication: Advances in Space Biology and Medicine

Abstract

This chapter reviews the effects of spaceflight on growth and cell division in higher plants. The chapter focuses on the expression and modulation of the genetic information which is present in developing and growing systems. At the cellular level, the genetic information involves an understanding of the external and internal growth regulatory controls which operate in resting or quiescent cells as they are activated to grow again at rapid rates. Using an embryogenic system of an organism similar to carrot showed an increased biomass of embryonic structures generated in space in liquid cultures. Chromosomes and plant cell division is also discussed in the chapter. The CHROMEX experiment employed, for the first time in a space-based experiment, tissue culture-derived plantlets. For H. gracilis, comparably sized seed-derived plants, were included in the experimental protocol. In all cases, the experimental plants began as fully differentiated individuals, complete with leaves, shoots, and roots, which had been maintained under aseptic conditions from their initiation.
doi: 10.1016/S1569-2574(08)60021-0 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1569257408600210
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Plant nutrition and growth regulation by CO2 enrichment

1992

B. Grodzinski

publication: BioScience

Abstract

Currently, carbon dioxide represents approximately 0.035% by volume of the atmosphere. This percentage is small in comparison to that of oxygen (21% by volume) and nitrogen (79% by volume). Green plants sustain their growth by assimilating the carbon of CO, into organic photosynthetic products, such as sugars, using light energy. At CO, levels higher than 0.035% (0.04-0.2%), the rate of carbon assimilation is accelerated and growth is enhanced in most plants. In addition, there is growing evidence that CO, levels within this range alter the pattern of plant development. This article assesses the role that CO, plays as the primary nutrient for growth, and the role it may play as a major regulator of plant developmental responses.
doi: 10.2307/1311882 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311882
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Genetic transformation of sweetpotato by particle bombardment

1992

C.S. Prakash, U. Varadarajan

publication: Plant Cell Reports

Abstract

Transient and stable expression of foreign genes has been achieved in sweet potato using the particle bombardment system of gene delivery. Callus and root isolates of two genotypes (Jewel and TIS-70357) with positive signs of transformation have been recovered. Tungsten microcarriers coated with plasmid DNA (pBI 221 containing the gusA gene) were accelerated at high velocity using a biolistic device into sweet potato target tissues. Histochemical examination of bombarded leaf and petiole explants revealed that most had cells expressing the gusA gene. When explants were cultured, calli and roots developed in most bombarded tissues. Similar results but with a lower frequency of transformation were observed when the plasmid pBI 121 (with gusA and antibiotic resistance npt II genes) was employed and bombarded explants cultured on an antibiotic selection medium. Subcultured roots and calli were positive for gusA expression when tested even after one year of in vitro culture, and thus the expression of the foreign gene is fairly stable. The particle bombardment approach of gene delivery appears to have a potential for generating transgenic sweet potatoes with useful agronomic traits.
doi: 10.1007/BF00235252 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00235252
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Growth, carbon dioxide exchange and mineral accumulation in potatoes grown at different magnesium concentrations

1992

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

Plants of Norland potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) were maintained for 42 days at Mg concentrations of 0.05, 0.125, 0.25, 1, 2, and 4 mM in a nonrecirculating nutrient film system under controlled environment. With the increased Mg supply from 0.05 to 4 mM, Mg concentrations in the leaves of the 42-day old plants increased significantly from 1.1 to 11.2 mg g-1 dry weight. Plant leaf area and plant and tuber dry weights increased with increased Mg concentrations up to 1 mM in solution or 6.7 mg g-1 in leaves, and then decreased with further increases in Mg concentrations. Rates of CO2 assimilation measured on leaflets in situ at ambient and various intercellular CO2 concentrations were consistently lower at 0.05 and 4 mM Mg than at other Mg treatments, which may indicate decreased photosynthetic activity in mesophyll tissues at the lowest and highest Mg concentrations. Dark respiration rates in leaves were highest at 0.05 and 4 mM Mg, lowest at 0.25 and 1 mM Mg, and intermediate at 0.125 and 2 mM Mg. The different Mg treatments also influenced accumulation of other minerals in leaves. Leaf concentrations of Ca and Mn decreased with increased Mg supply except that Ca and Mn were lower at 0.05 mM than at 0.125 mM Mg. Leaf K concentrations were lower at 1, 2 and 4 mM Mg than at other Mg treatments. Foliar concentrations of P, Fe, Zn, and Cu had small but inconsistent variation with different Mg concentrations. Leaf concentrations of N, S, and B were similar at different Mg concentrations. This study demonstrates that various Mg nutrition, along with altered accumulation of other nutrients, could regulate dry matter production in potatoes by affecting not only leaf area but also leaf carbon dioxide assimilation and respiration.
doi: 10.1080/01904169209364403 pubmed: 11537503 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904169209364403
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Some challenges in designing a Lunar, Martian, or microgravity CELSS

1992

Frank B. Salisbury

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

The design of a bioregenerative life-support system (a Controlled Ecological Life-Support System or CELSS) for long-duration stays on the moon, Mars, or in a space craft poses formidable problems in engineering and in theory. Technological (hardware) problems include: (1) Creation and control of gas composition and pressure, temperature, light, humidity, and air circulation, especially in microgravity to 1/3 xg and in the vacuum of space. Light (energy demanding), CO2 levels, and the rooting media are special problems for plants. (2) Developing specialized equipment for food preparation. (3) Equipment development for waste recycling. (4) Development of computer systems for environmental monitoring and control as well as several other functions. Problems of theory (software) include: (1) Determining crop species and cultivars (some bred especially for CELSS). (2) Optimum environments and growing and harvesting techniques for each crop. (3) Best and most efficient food-preparation techniques and required equipment. (4) Best and most efficient waste-recycling techniques and equipment. This topic includes questions about the extent of closure, resupply, and waste storage. (5) How to achieve long-term stability. (6) How to avoid catastrophic failures--and how to recover from near-catastrophic failures (for example, plant diseases). Many problems must be solved.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(92)90200-3 pubmed: 11537566 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0094576592902003
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The vacuum-operated nutrient-delivery system: Hydroponics for microgravity

1992

Christopher S. Brown,William M. Cox,Thomas W. Dreschel,Peter V. Chetirkin

publication: HortScience

Abstract

A nutrient delivery system that may have applicability for growing plants in microgravity is described. The Vacuum-Operated Nutrient Delivery System (VONDS) draws nutrient solution across roots that are under a partial vacuum at ~91 kPa. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Blue Lake 274) plants grown on the VONDS had consistently greater leaf area and higher root, stem, leaf, and pod dry weights than plants grown under nonvacuum control conditions. This study demonstrates the potential applicability of the VONDS for growing plants in microgravity for space biology experimentation and/or crop production.
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Dreschel/publication/24341179_Hydroponic_Feed_With_Su...
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Gas-exchange measurements using a large, closed plant growth chamber

1992

Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Plant-growth chambers vary widely in size and capabilities (Downs, 1975), but regardless of size, several criteria must be met if a plant chamber is used for photosynthetic gas-exchange measurements. In general, the chamber must be tightly closed with a known volume (closed system), or the chamber can be open but with a measured air flow passing through it (open system; Mitchell, 1992). In closed systems, photosynthesis can be determined either by the drawdown rate of CO2 in the chamber (ie, a true closed system), or from the mass of CO2
pubmed: 11537623 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/previewpdf/journals/hortsci/27/7/article-p777.xml
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OCAM--a CELSS modeling tool: Descriptions and results

1992

Alan Drysdale,Mark Thomas,Mark Fresa,Ray Wheeler

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) technology is critical to the Space Exploration Initiative. NASA's Kennedy Space Center (KSC) has been performing CELSS research for several years, developing data related to CELSS design. We have developed OCAM (Object-oriented CELSS Analysis and Modeling), a CELSS modeling tool, and have used this tool to evaluate CELSS concepts, using this data. In using OCAM, a CELSS is broken down into components, and each component is modeled as a combination of containers, converters and gates which store, process and exchange carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen on a daily basis. Multiple crops and plant types can be simulated. Resource recovery options modeled include combustion, leaching, enzyme treatment, aerobic or anaerobic digestion, and mushroom and fish growth. Simulation results include printouts and time-history graphs of total system mass, biomass, carbon dioxide, and oxygen quantities; energy consumption; and manpower requirements. The contributions of mass, energy, and manpower to system cost have been analyzed to compare configurations and determine appropriate research directions.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44733036
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A Matrix-Based Porous Tube Water and Nutrient Delivery System

1992

R. C. Morrow,R. J. Bula,T. W. Tibbitts,W. R. Dinauer

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

A system was developed which provides nutrients and water to plants while maintaining good aeration at the roots and preventing water from escaping in reduced gravity. The nutrient solution is circulated through porous tubes under negative pressure and moves through the tube wall via capillary forces into the rooting matrix, establishing a nonsaturated condition in the root zone. Tests using prototypes of the porous tube water and nutrient delivery system indicate that plant productivity in this system is equivalent to standard soil and solution culture growing procedures. The system has functioned successfully in short-term microgravity during parabolic flight tests and will be flown on the space shuttle.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44733098
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A matrix-based porous tube water and nutrient delivery system

1992

R. C. Morrow,R. J. Bula,T. W. Tibbitts,W. R. Dinauer

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

A system was developed which provides nutrients and water to plants while maintaining good aeration at the roots and preventing water from escaping in reduced gravity. The nutrient solution is circulated through porous tubes under negative pressure and moves through the tube wall via capillary forces into the rooting matrix, establishing a nonsaturated condition in the root zone. Tests using prototypes of the porous tube water and nutrient delivery system indicate that plant productivity in this system is equivalent to standard soil and solution culture growing procedures. The system has functioned successfully in short-term microgravity during parabolic flight tests and will be flown on the space shuttle.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44733098
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A study of biohazard protection for farming modules of a lunar base CELSS

1992

T. Fujii,Y. Midorikawa,M. Shiba,M. Terai,K. Omasa,K. Nitta

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

For the Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) of a manned lunar base which is planned to be built on the moon early in the 21st century, several proposed programs exist to grow vegetables inside a farming module. 1)2)3)4)5) At the 40th IAF (Malaga, 1989) the author et al presented a proposal for supplying food and nutrients to a crew of eight members, a basic concept which is based on growing four kinds of vegetables. 6) This paper describes measures for biohazard protection in farming modules. In this study, biohazard protection means prevention of the dispersion of plant diseases to other plant species or other portions of farming beds.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90005-I link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290005I
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Temperature cycling periods affect growth and tuberization in potatoes under continuous light

1992

W. Cao, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Plants of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars Denali, Norland, Haig and Kennebec were grown for 42 days under three temperature cycling periods (thermoperiods) with continuous irradiation in two repeated experiments to help determine if temperature cycling might be varied to optimize tuber development of potatoes in controlled environments. Thermoperiods of 6/6 hours, 12/12 hours and 24/24 hours were established with the same temperature change of 22/14C and same controlled vapor pressure deficit of 0.60 kPa. The thermoperiod of 24/24 hours significantly promoted tuber initiation but slowed tuber enlargement in all four cultivars, compared to the thermoperiods of 6/6 hours and 12/12 hours. Denali' produced the highest tuber and total dry weights under the 6/6 hours thermoperiod. Kennebec' produced the highest tuber dry weight under the 12/12 hours thermoperiod. Thermoperiods had no significant effect on shoot and root dry weights of any cultivars. The major effect of thermoperiods was on initiation and enlargement of tubers.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.27.4.344 pubmed: 11537729 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/11808177_Temperature_Cycling_P...
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The Breadboard Project: A functioning CELSS plant growth system

1992

W.M. Knott

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The primary objective of the Breadboard project for the next 3-4 years is to develop, integrate and operate a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) at a one person scale. The focus of this project over the past two years has been the development of the plant growth facility, the first module of the CELSS. The other major modules, food preparation, biomass processing, and resource recovery, have been researched at the laboratory scale during the past two years and facilities are currently under construction to scale-up these modules to an operational state. This paper will outline the design requirements for the Biomass Production Chamber (BPC), the plant growth facility for the project, and the control and monitoring subsystems which operate the chamber and will present results from both engineering and biological tests of the facility. Three production evaluations of wheat, conducted in the BPC during the past year, will be described and the data generated from these tests discussed. Future plans for the BPC will be presented along with future goals for the project as the other modules become active.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90009-m pubmed: 11537077 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290009M
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Current performance of the NASA Biomass Production Chamber

1992

R.E. Fortson, J.C. Sager, J.O. Bledsoe, R.M. Wheeler, W.M. Knott

publication: American Society of Agricultural Engineers

Abstract

NASA's Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) is the main component of the Controlled Ecological Life Support System. It is a 7.5 m by 3.7 m cylindrical chamber in which plants are grown hydroponically. The chamber is sealed and nutrient solution and atmosphere are recycled. Tests were conducted on the main components of the BPC. Min. air temp., min. and max. nutrient temp., min. relative humidity, chamber leakage, and lighting power consumption were all measured. Temp. stratification and poor humidity control were both symptoms of the same problem: inadequate monitoring and control of heating and cooling coils. Energy conservation, food processing, robotics, materials handling and automation will be investigated as work continues to develop the system for food production in space.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19932456945
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Determining the potential productivity of food crops in controlled environments

1992

Bruce Bugbee

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The quest to determine the maximum potential productivity of food crops is greatly benefitted by crop growth models. Many models have been developed to analyze and predict crop growth in the field, but it is difficult to predict biological responses to stress conditions. Crop growth models for the optimal environments of a Controlled Environment Life Support System (CELSS) can be highly predictive. This paper discusses the application of a crop growth model to CELSS; the model is used to evaluate factors limiting growth. The model separately evaluates the following four physiological processes: absorption of PPF by photosynthetic tissue, carbon fixation (photosynthesis), carbon use (respiration), and carbon partitioning (harvest index). These constituent processes determine potentially achievable productivity. An analysis of each process suggests that low harvest index is the factor most limiting to yield. PPF absorption by plant canopies and respiration efficiency are also of major importance. Research concerning productivity in a CELSS should emphasize: 1) the development of gas exchange techniques to continuously monitor plant growth rates and 2) environmental techniques to reduce plant height in communities.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90014-o pubmed: 11537083 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290014O
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Morphological responses of wheat to blue light

1992

Charles Barnes,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

Blue light significantly increased tillering in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants grown at the same photosynthetic photon flux (PPF). Plants were grown under two levels of blue light (400-500 nm) in a controlled environment with continuous irradiation. Plants received either 50 micromoles m-2 s-1 of blue light or 2 micromoles m-2 s-1 blue light from filtered metal halide lamps at a total irradiance of 200 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF (400-700 nm). Plants tillered an average of 25% more under the higher level of blue light. Blue light also caused a small, but consistent, increase in main culm development, measured as Haun stage. Leaf length was reduced by higher levels of blue light, while plant dry-mass was not significantly affected by blue light. Applying the principle of equivalent light action, the results suggest that tillering and leaf elongation are mediated by the blue-UV light receptor(s) because phytochrome photoequilibrium for each treatment were nearly identical.
doi: 10.1016/s0176-1617(11)80347-0 pubmed: 11537086 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161711803470
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Growing root, tuber and nut crops hydroponically for CELSS

1992

W.A. Hill,D.G. Mortley,C.L. MacKowiak,P.A. Loretan,T.W. Tibbitts,R.M. Wheeler,C.K. Bonsi,C.E. Morris

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Among the crops selected by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for growth in controlled ecological life support systems are four that have subsurface edible parts -- potatoes, sweet potatoes, sugar beets and peanuts. These crops have been produced in open and closed (recirculating), solid media and liquid, hydroponic systems. Fluorescent , fluorescent plus incandescent and high pressure sodium plus metal halide lamps have proven to be effective light sources. Continuous light with 16 degrees C and 28/22 degrees C (day/night) temperatures have produced highest yields for potato and sweet potato, respectively. Dry weight yields of up to 4685, 2541, 1151 and 207 g m-2 for for potatoes, sweet potatoes, sugar beets and peanuts, respectively, have been produced in controlled environment hydroponic systems.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90018-s pubmed: 11537058 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290018S
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Photosynthesis as a basis for life support on Earth and in space

1992

Arthur W. Galston

publication: Bioscience

Abstract

E ach year, approximately 200 billion tons of carbon are removed from the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and incorporated into organic compounds of plants in the process of photosynthesis (Rabinowitch 1945). The light-driven process, which transduces light energy into chemical forms in the chloroplasts of green plants and the chromatophores of photosynthesis bacteria, represents one of the world's most extensive biochemical activities. Photosynthesis provides the ultimate energetic basis for the activities of all human and
doi: 10.2307/1311878 pubmed: 11537402 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311878
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Steady state gas exchange in growth chambers: System design and operation

1992

B. Bugbee

publication: HortScience

Partial Abstract

background in measurement fundamentals related to gas exchange growth chamber for canopy photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration measurements. The system was designed ...
link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/previewpdf/journals/hortsci/27/7/article-p770.xml
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Chromosomes and plant cell division in space: Environmental conditions and experimental details

1992

H.G. Levine,A.D. Krikorian

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Details of the plant cultivation system developed for the CHROMEX experiment flown aboard the Shuttle Discovery (March, 1989) in NASA's Plant Growth Unit (PGU) are presented. The physical regime as measured during Spaceflight, both within the orbiter cabin environment and within the PGU itself, is discussed. These data function as a guide to what may be representative of the environmental regime in which Space-based plant cultivation systems will be operating, at least for the near-term. Attention is also given to practical considerations involved in conducting a plant experiment in Space. Of particular importance are the differences expected to occur in moisture distribution patterns within substrates used to cultivate plants in Space vs on Earth.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90266-z pubmed: 11536992 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290266Z
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Coupling plant growth and waste recycling systems in a controlled life support system (CELSS)

1992

J.L. Garland

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

The development of bioregenerative systems as part of the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) program depends, in large part, on the ability to recycle inorganic nutrients, contained in waste material, into plant growth systems. One significant waste (resource) stream is inedible plant material. This research compared wheat growth in hydroponic solutions based on inorganic salts (modified Hoagland's) with solutions based on the soluble fraction of inedible wheat biomass (leachate). Recycled nutrients in leachate solutions provided the majority of mineral nutrients for plant growth, although additions of inorganic nutrients to leachate solutions were necessary. Results indicate that plant growth and waste recyling systems can be effectively coupled within CELSS based on equivalent wheat yield in leachate and Hoagland solutions, and the rapid mineralization of waste organic material in the hydroponic systems. Selective enrichment for microbial communities able to mineralize organic material within the leachate was necessary to prevent accumulation of dissolved organic matter in leachate-based solutions. Extensive analysis of microbial abundance, growth, and activity in the hydroponic systems indicated that addition of soluble organic material from plants does not cause excessive microbial growth or 'biofouling', and helped define the microbially-mediated flux of carbon in hydroponic solutions.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19920019427
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Biosphere 2: A prototype project for a permanent and evolving life system for Mars base

1992

Mark Nelson,John P. Allen,William F. Dempster

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

As part of the ground-based preparation for creating long-term life systems needed for space habitation and settlement, Space Biospheres Ventures (SBV) is undertaking the Biosphere 2 project near Oracle, Arizona. Biosphere 2, currently under construction, is scheduled to commence its operations in 1991 with a two-year closure period with a crew of eight people. Biosphere 2 is a facility which will be essentialy materially-closed to exchange with the outside environment. It is open to information and energy flow. Biosphere 2 is designed to achieve a complex life-support system by the integration of seven areas or "biomes"--rainforest, savannah, desert, marsh, ocean, intensive agriculture and human habitat. Unique bioregenerative technologies, such as soil bed reactors for air purification, aquatic waste processing systems, real-time analytic systems and complex computer monitoring and control systems are being developed for the Biosphere 2 project. Its operation should afford valuable insight into the functioning of complex life systems necessary for long-term habitation in space. It will serve as an experimental ground-based prototype and testbed for the stable, permanent life systems needed for human exploration of Mars.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90026-t pubmed: 11537067 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290026T
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Application of sunlight and lamps for plant irradiation in space bases

1992

J.C. Sager,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The radiation sources used for plant growth on a space base must meet the biological requirements for photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis. In addition the sources must be energy and volume efficient, while maintaining the required irradiance levels, spectral, spatial and temporal distribution. These requirements are not easily met, but as the biological and mission requirements are better defined, then specific facility designs can begin to accommodate both the biological requirements and the physical limitations of a space based plant growth system.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90019-t pubmed: 11537059 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290019T
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Characterization of the water soluble component of inedible residue from candidate CELSS crops

1992

J.L. Garland

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Recycling of inorganic nutrients required for plant growth will be a necessary component of a fully closed, bioregenerative life support system. This research characterized the recovery of plant nutrients from the inedible fraction of three crop types (wheat, potato, and soybean) by soaking, or leaching, in water. A considerable portion of the dry weight of the inedible biomass was readily soluble (29 percent for soybean, 43 percent for wheat, and 52 percent for potato). Greater weight loss from potato was a result of higher tissue concentrations of potassium, nitrate, and phosphate. Approximately 25 percent of the organic content of the biomass was water soluble, while the majority of most inorganic nutrients, except for calcium and iron, were recovered in the leachate. Direct use of the leachates in hydroponic media could provide between 40-90 percent of plant nutrient demands for wheat, and 20-50 percent of demand for soybean and potato. Further evaluation of leaching as a component of resource recovery scheme in a bioregenerative system requires study of (1) utilization of plant leachates in hydroponic plant culture; and (2) conversion of organic material (both soluble and insoluble) into edible, or other useful, products.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19930008922
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Growth of plants at reduced pressures: Experiments in wheat—technological advantages and constraints

1992

Marcel Andre,Daniel Massimino

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Procedures and results are presented concerning the growth of wheat plants with variable partial pressures of O2 and N2. Data demonstrate that some growth occurs in pressures as low as 0.1 atmosphere. The growth was similar or higher at 200 mb (0.2 atmosphere) than in normal atmosphere but the development was different. Advantages of the low pressure cultivation, especially in the absence of nitrogen, are discussed, including better ratio volume/mass of plant cultivation module; lower losses of gases by leakage; easier management of photosynthetic oxygen produced by plants.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90015-p pubmed: 11537084 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290015P
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Evaluation of light emitting diodes characteristics for a space-based plant irradiation source

1992

D.J. Barta,T.W. Tibbitts,R.J. Bula,R.C. Morrow

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are a promising irradiation source for plant growth in space. Improved semiconductor technology has yielded LED devices fabricated with gallium aluminum arsenide (GaAlAs) chips which have a high efficiency for converting electrical energy to photosynthetically active radiation. Specific GaAlAs LEDs are available that emit radiation with a peak wavelength near the spectral peak of maximum quantum action for photosynthesis. The electrical conversion efficiency of installed systems (micromole s-1 of photosynthetic photons per watt) of high output LEDs can be within 10% of that for high pressure sodium lamps. Output of individual LEDs were found to vary by as much as 55% from the average of the lot. LED ratings, in mcd (luminous intensity per solid angle), were found to be proportional to total photon output only for devices with the same dispersion angle and spectral peak. Increasing current through the LED increased output but also increased temperature with a consequent decrease in electrical conversion efficiency. A photosynthetic photon flux as high as 900 micromoles m-2 s-1 has been produced on surfaces using arrays with LEDs mounted 7.6 mm apart, operating as a current of 50 mA device-1 and at an installed density of approximately 17,200 lamps m-2 of irradiated area. Advantages of LEDs over other electric light sources for use in space systems include long life, minimal mass and volume and being a solid state device.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(92)90020-x pubmed: 11537060 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779290020X
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Design of a controlled ecological life support system

1992

SH Schwartzkopf

publication: Bioscience

Abstract

As we approach the beginning of the twenty-first century, the United States moves closer to a new era in space exploration. This new era promises interplanetary transportation and the establishment of outposts on other planets. Success in this exploration depends on many different technologies: some already mature, some currently under devel- opment, and others still early in the conceptual stages. Particularly crucial are the technologies that support hu- man life.
Currently, spacecraft life support systems rely on open-loop (nonrecy- cling) technologies. These are simple and sufficiently reliable for human space-flight missions of relatively short duration, small crew sizes, and limited power availability. Life’ sup- port technologies for the coming era of exploration, however, must ad- dress a different set of requirements. Longer-duration missions, larger crew sizes, and changes in crew com- plement during the mission will re- quire maximizing crew safety by in- creasing the degree of self-sufficiency of the life support system, minimizing the economic costs associated with resupply and the accompanying com- plexity of logistics, and maintaining a familiar, Earthlike living environment to promote human productivity and psychological well-being.

doi: 10.2307/1311883 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311883
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The first “space” vegetables have been grown in the “SVET” greenhouse using controlled environmental conditions

1993

T.N. Ivanova,Yu.A. Bercovich,A.L. Mashinskiy,G.I. Meleshko

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

The paper describes the “SVET” project—a new generation of space greenhouse with small dimensions. Through the use of a minicomputer, “SVET” is fully capable of automatically operating and controlling environmental systems for higher plant growth. A number of preliminary studies have shown the radish and cabbage to be potentially important crops for CELSS (Closed Environmental Life Support System). The “SVET” space greenhouse was mounted on the “CRYSTAL” technological module docked to the Mir orbital space station on 10 June 1990. Soviet cosmonauts Balandin and Solovyov started the first experiments with the greenhouse on 15 June 1990. Preliminary results of seed cultivation over an initial 54-day period in “SVET” are presented. Morphometrical characteristics of plants brought back to Earth are given. Alteration in plant characteristics, such as growth and developmental changes, or morphological contents were noted. A crop of radish plants was harvested under microgravity conditions. Characteristics of plant environmental control parameters and an estimation of functional properties of control and regulation systems of the “SVET” greenhouse in space flight as received via telemetry data is reported.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(93)90082-8 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0094576593900828
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Plants and soil microorganisms – removal of formaldehyde, xylene and ammonia from the indoor environment

1993

B.C. Wolverton, J.D. Wolverton

publication: Journal of the Mississippi Academy of Sciences

Abstract

In a 5-month trial on over 30 indoor plants in potting soil, Nephrolepis exaltata 'Bostoniensis' removed the most formaldehyde (1863 µg/h) from the air in sealed 310-litre chambers. It was also the most effective plant at removing formaldehyde when particle board treated with the chemical was placed inside the chambers. After 7 days, Spathiphyllum sp. and Kalanchoe sp. removed 300 and 142 µg formaldehyde/h from the air in the chambers, respectively, compared with 46 µg/h removed by potting soil alone. Sterilized soil or unsterilized soil covered with sterilized sand (both without plants) did not remove detectable levels of formaldehyde, indicating that microorganisms are involved in its removal. By comparing plants (of several species) with exposed soil against plants with soil covered with sterilized sand, it was found that leaves account for 33-40 and 47-49.5%, and soil microbes account for 60-67 and 50.5-53% of formaldehyde and xylene removal, respectively. Phoenix roebelenii and Rhapis excelsa removed the most xylene and ammonia from the air in the chambers (610 and 7356 µg/h), respectively.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19930324793
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Stabilization of pH in solid-matrix hydroponic systems

1993

Jay Frick,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

2-[N-morpholino]ethanesulfonic acid (MES) buffer or Amberlite DP-1 (cation-exchange resin beads) were used to stabilize substrate pH of passive-wicking, solid-matrix hydroponic systems in which small canopies of Brassica napus L. (CrGC 5-2, genome : ACaacc) were grown to maturity. Two concentrations of MES (5 or 10 mM) were included in Hoagland 1 nutrient solution. Alternatively, resin beads were incorporated into the 2 vermiculite : 1 perlite (v/v) growth medium at 6% or 12% of total substrate volume. Both strategies stabilized pH without toxic side effects on plants. Average seed yield rates for all four pH stabilization treatments (13.3 to 16.9 g m-2 day-1) were about double that of the control (8.2 g m-2 day-1), for which there was no attempt to buffer substrate pH. Both the highest canopy seed yield rate (16.9 g m-2 day-1) and the highest shoot harvest index (19.5%) occurred with the 6% resin bead treatment, even though the 10 mM MES and 12% bead treatments maintained pH within the narrowest limits. The pH stabilization methods tested did not significantly affect seed oil and protein contents.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.28.10.981 pubmed: 11537992 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cary-Mitchell/publication/11808440_Stabilization_of_pH_in_So...
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Quinoa: An emerging ‘new’ crop with potential for CELSS

1993

G. Schlick, D.L. Bubenheim

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Chenopodium quinoa is being considered as a new crop for the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) because of its high protein values (12 - 18%) and unique amino acid composition. Lysine, and essential amino acid that is deficient in many grain crops, is found in quinoa approaching Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) standards set for humans. This 'new' crop, rich in protein and with desirable proportions of important amino acids, may provide greater versatility in meeting the needs of humans on long-term space missions. Initially, the cultivars CO407 x ISLUGA, CO407 Heat Tolerant Population 1, and Real' (a Bolivian variety) were examined. The first cultivar showed the most promise in greenhouse studies. When grown hydroponically in the greenhouse, with no attempt to maximize productivity, this cultivar produced 202 g m(exp -2) with a harvest index of 37%. None of the cultivars were greater than 70 cm in height. Initial results indicate that quinoa could be an excellent crop for CELSS because of the high concentration of protein, ease of use, versatility in preparation, and potential for greatly increased yields in controlled environments.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19940015664
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A data base of crop nutrient use, water use, and carbon dioxide exchange in a 20 m2 growth chamber. 1. Wheat as a case study

1993

R.M. Wheeler, W.L. Berry, C.L. Mackowiak, K.A. Corey, J.C. Sager, M.M. Heeb, W.M. Knott

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

A data set is given describing the daily nutrient uptake, gas exchange, environmental conditions, and carbon (C), and nutrient partitioning at harvest for the entire canopy and root system of a wheat crop (Triticum aestivum, cv. Yecora Rojo). The data were obtained from a 20 m2 stand of wheat plants grown from planting to maturity in a closed, controlled environment, and include daily nutrient uptake [macronutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S); and micronutrients, iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo)], canopy carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange rates, and transpiration. Environmental factors such as relative humidity, air temperature, nutrient solution temperature, pH and electrical conductivity, and photoperiod were controlled in the chamber to specific set points. A detailed description of biomass yield for each of the 64 plant growth trays comprising the 20 m2 of growth area is also provided, and includes dry weights of grain, straw, chaff, and roots, along with the concentration of nutrients in different plant tissues and the percent carbohydrate, fat, and protein. To our knowledge, this information represents one of the most extensive data sets available for a canopy of wheat grown from seed to maturity under controlled environmental and nutritional conditions, and thus may provide useful information for model development and validation. A methods section is included to qualify any assumptions that might be required for the use of the data in plant growth models, along with a daily event calendar indicating when adjustments in set points and occasional equipment or sensor failures occurred.
doi: 10.1080/01904169309364659 pubmed: 11538007 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904169309364659
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Supraoptimal carbon dioxide effects on growth of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr

1993

R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,L.M. Siegriest,J.C. Sager

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

In tightly closed environments used for human life support in space, carbon dioxide (CO2) partial pressures can reach 500 to 1000 Pa, which may be supraoptimal or toxic to plants used for life support. To study this, soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr. cvs. McCall and Pixie] were grown for 90 days at 50, 100, 200, and 500 Pa partial pressure CO2 (500, 1000, 2000, and 5000 ppm). Plants were grown using recirculating nutrient film technique with a 12-h photoperiod, a 26 degrees C/20 degrees C thermoperiod, and approximately 300 micromoles m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF). Seed yield and total biomass were greatest at 100 Pa for cv. McCall, suggesting that higher CO2 levels were supraoptimal. Seed yield and total biomass for cv. Pixie showed little difference between CO2 treatments. Average stomatal conductance of upper canopy leaves at 50 Pa CO2 approximately 500 Pa > 200 Pa > 100 Pa. Total water use over 90 d for both cultivars (combined on one recirculating system) equalled 822 kg water for 100 Pa CO2, 845 kg for 50 Pa, 879 kg for 200 Pa, and 1194 kg for 500 Pa. Water use efficiences for both cultivars combined equalled 3.03 (g biomass kg-1 water) for 100 Pa CO2, 2.54 g kg-1 for 200 Pa, 2.42 g kg-1 for 50 Pa, and 1.91 g kg-1 for 500 Pa. The increased stomatal conductance and stand water use at the highest CO2 level (500 Pa) were unexpected and pose interesting considerations for managing plants in a tightly closed system where CO2 concentrations may reach high levels.
doi: 10.1016/s0176-1617(11)80959-4 pubmed: 11538190 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161711809594
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[citation] NASA Advanced Life Support Program Plan

1993

M. Averner

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Light spectral quality effects on the growth of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) nodal cuttings in vitro

1993

Deborah A. Wilson,Russell C. Weigel,Raymond M. Wheeler,John C. Sager

publication: In vitro cellular & developmental biology. Plant : journal of the Tissue Culture Association

Abstract

The effect of light spectral quality on the growth of in vitro nodal cuttings of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars Norland, Superior, Kennebec, and Denali were examined. The different light spectra were provided by Vita-Lite fluorescent (VF) (a white light control), blue fluorescent (BF), red fluorescent (RF), low-pressure sodium (LPS), and a combination of low-pressure sodium plus cool-white fluorescent lamps (LPS/CWF). For all cultivars, stem lengths after 4 wk were longest under LPS, followed by RF, LPS/CWF, VF, and BF (in descending order). Microscopic studies revealed that cells were shortest when cultured in BF or VF environments, and were longest in RF or LPS lamp environments. The highest number of axillary branches occurred on plantlets grown with LPS or LPS/CWF, whereas the lowest number occurred with BF. No leaf or stem edema (callus or gall-like growths) occurred with LPS or LPS/CWF lighting, and no edema occurred on cv. Norland plantlets, regardless of lighting. Results suggest that shoot morphologic development of in vitro grown potato plants can be controlled by controlling irradiant spectral quality.
doi: 10.1007/BF02632231 pubmed: 11538010 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02632231
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Incineration in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System: a method for resource recovery from inedible biomass

1993

D.L. Bubenheim, W. Kanapathipillai, T. Wydeven

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Manganese toxicity and tolerance in sweetpotato

1993

D.G. Mortley

publication: HortScience

Abstract

A greenhouse study was conducted for 2 years using 4 vine cuttings of the sweet potato breeding clone TU-82-155 in a modified Hoagland nutrient solution. Plants were grown for 28 d and then treatments of 0.25, 1.0, 2.5, 10 or 100 mg Mn/l were given for 43 d. Foliage and tuber DW declined linearly in response to increasing Mn concentration of by 83 and 28%, respectively. Roots browned with 10 and 100 mg Mn/l showing a darker colour near the root tips and plants receiving ≥2.5 mg Mn/l exhibited interveinal and marginal yellowing with necrotic brown spots, leading to senescence and leaf shedding; plants also showed stunted growth. Mn concentration and accumulation was higher in foliage than in tubers.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19940707267
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Nutrient composition of sweetpotato storage roots altered by frequency of nutrient solution change

1993

P.J. Grant, J.Y. Lu, D.G. Mortley, P.A. Loretan, C.K. Bonsi, W.A. Hill

publication: …

Partial Abstract

The sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam] breeding clone TU-82-155 was grown during Spring 1990 and Summer 1991 in standard Tuskegee Univ.(Alabama) growth channels (0.15 x 0.15 x 1.2 m) for 120 days in a greenhouse using a hydroponic (nutrient film) system with a modified half-strength Hoagland nutrient solution. The nutrient solution was changed every 2, 14, or 28 days. Total N, oil, ash, amino acid, vitamin, and mineral concentrations in storage roots generally were higher and dry weight and starch concentration were lower ...
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anoop-Srivastava/post/Citrus-roots-nutrition-content/attachm...
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Growth and carbon assimilation in potato plants as affected by light fluctuations

1993

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

In growth room experiments potatoes cv. Norland, Russet Burbank, Denali and Kennebec were grown in pots with commercial peat and vermiculite in a 1: 1 ratio (v/v). Treatments consisted of the photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) being alternated between 300 and 500 µmol/m2 per s every 30 min in 1 growth room, and in a separate room the PPF kept constant at 400 µmol/m2 during the 12 h photoperiod. In another experiment the same PPF levels were alternated every 5 min. Total and tuber DW and leaf area/plant 35 d after transplanting
pubmed: 11537625 link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19940706467
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Hydroponic crop production using recycling nutrients from inedible crop residues

1993

J.L. Garland, C.L. Mackowiak, J.C. Sager

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

The coupling of plant growth and waste recycling systems is an important step toward the development of bioregenerative life support systems. This research examined the effectiveness of two alternative methods for recycling nutrients from the inedible fraction (residue) of candidate crops in a bioregenerative system; 1) extraction in water, or leaching, and 2) combustion at 550 °C, with subsequent reconstitution of the ash in acid. The effectiveness of the different methods was evaluated by 1) comparing the percent recovery of nutrients, and 2) measuring short- and long-term plant growth in hydroponic solutions, based on recycled nutrients.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44740060
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Photosynthesis of plants under continuous illumination

1993

I. S. Drozdova,S. N. Maevskaya,E. A. Egorova,N. S. Barabanshchikova,T. G. Dzhibladze,N. G. Bukhov

publication: Russian Journal of Plant Physiology

Abstract

Changes in photosynthetic activity, redox state of photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII), as well as starch and sucrose content were studied on the source leaves of 18- to 20-day-old radish (Raphanus sativus L.) plants that were dark-adapted for 12 h and then exposed to continuous white light (170 μmol quanta/(m2 s)). The kinetic pattern of photosynthetic activity comprised three phases. Within the first 6 h of light adaptation (first phase), the maximum photosynthetic rate and the quantum yield of photosynthesis increased 1.6 times in the illuminated leaves compared to the leaves of plants placed in darkness. Further illumination led to the decrease of both photosynthetic indices by about 20% (12 h after the onset of light exposure, second phase) and finally increased them to the level observed after 6-h light exposure (72 h, third phase). The stationary photooxidation level of PSI primary donor was relatively low within the first 6 h of light adaptation, and then it steeply increased. The linear relationship between the amounts of photoreduced PSII primary acceptor and photooxidized PSI primary donor did not change during prolonged light adaptation, showing a highly coordinated functioning of both photosystems. The amount of sucrose in leaves attained its peak after 12 h of light adaptation and did not change further on. The starch content increased to its peak within 24 h of illumination and decreased gradually upon longer exposures. It is concluded that, despite active export of assimilates to the developing storage organ, the source leaves exhibit a nonmonotonic temporal course of endogenously regulated photosynthetic activity, which was related to changes in the effectiveness and, possibly, the number of the components of photosynthetic apparatus.
link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:RUPP.0000011301.17589.10
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Accuracy of quantum sensors measuring yield photon flux and photosynthetic photon flux

1993

Charles Barnes,Theodore Tibbitts,John Sager,Gerald Deitzer,David Bubenheim,Gus Koerner,Bruce Bugbee

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Photosynthesis is fundamentally driven by photon flux rather than energy flux, but not all absorbed photons yield equal amounts of photosynthesis. Thus, two measures of photosynthetically active radiation have emerged: photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), which values all photons from 400 to 700 nm equally, and yield photon flux (YPF), which weights photons in the range from 360 to 760 nm according to plant photosynthetic response. We selected seven common radiation sources and measured YPF and PPF from each source with a spectroradiometer. We then compared these measurements with measurements from three quantum sensors designed to measure YPF, and from six quantum sensors designed to measure PPF. There were few differences among sensors within a group (usually <5%), but YPF values from sensors were consistently lower (3% to 20%) than YPF values calculated from spectroradiometric measurements. Quantum sensor measurements of PPF also were consistently lower than PPF values calculated from spectroradiometric measurements, but the differences were <7% for all sources, except red-light-emitting diodes. The sensors were most accurate for broad-band sources and least accurate for narrow-band sources. According to spectroradiometric measurements, YPF sensors were significantly less accurate (>9% difference) than PPF sensors under metal halide, high-pressure sodium, and low-pressure sodium lamps. Both sensor types were inaccurate (>18% error) under red-light-emitting diodes. Because both YPF and PPF sensors are imperfect integrators, and because spectroradiometers can measure photosynthetically active radiation much more accurately, researchers should consider developing calibration factors from spectroradiometric data for some specific radiation sources to improve the accuracy of integrating sensors.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.28.12.1197 pubmed: 11537894 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/11808342_Accuracy_of_Quantum_S...
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Study of various NH4 / NO3 mixtures for enhancing growth of potatoes

1993

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of various NH4(+)-N/NO3(-)-N percentages on growth and mineral concentrations in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) plants using a non-recirculating nutrient film system in a controlled environment. The first experiment included six NH4(+)-N/NO3(-)-N percentages at 0/100, 20/80, 40/60, 60/40, 80/20, and 100/0 with the same total N concentration of 4 mM. The second experiment included six NH4(+)-N/NO3(-)-N percentages at 0/100, 4/96, 8/92, 12/88, 16/84, and 20/80 again with the same total N of 4 mM. In each experiment, plants were harvested 35 days after transplanting when tubers had been initiated and started to enlarge. Dry weights of shoots, tubers, and whole plant at the harvest were increased significantly with all mixed nitrogen treatments as compared with single NH4+ or NO3- form. The enhanced growth with mixed nitrogen was greatest at 8% to 20% NH4(+)-N. Also, the concentrations and accumulation of total N in the shoots and roots were greater with mixed nitrogen than with separate NH4+ or NO3- nutrition. With NH4+ present in the solutions, the concentrations of P and Cl in the shoots were increased compared to NO3- alone, whereas the tissue concentrations of Ca and Mg were decreased. It was concluded that nitrogen fertilization provided with combined NH4+ and NO3- forms, even at small proportions of NH4+, can enhance nitrogen uptake and productivity in potato plants.
doi: 10.1080/01904169309364643 pubmed: 11537720 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904169309364643
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Gas exchange rates of wheat stands grown in a sealed chamber

1993

R.M. Wheeler, K.A. Corey, J.C. Sager, W.M. Knott

publication: Crop science

Abstract

Information on gas exchange of crop stands grown in controlled environments is limited, but is vital for assessing the use of crops for human life-support in closed habitats envisioned for space. Two studies were conducted to measure gas exchange of wheat stands (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Yecora Rojo) grown from planting to maturity in a large (20 m2 canopy area), closed growth chamber. Daily rates of dark-period respiration and net photosynthesis of the stand were calculated from rates of CO2 build-up during dark cycles and subsequent CO2 drawdown in the light (i.e., a closed-system approach). Lighting was provided as a 20-h photoperiod by high-pressure sodium lamps, with canopy-level photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) ranging from 500 to 800 micromoles m-2 s-1 as canopy height increased. Net photosynthesis rates peaked near 27 micromoles CO2 m-2 s-1 at 25 d after planting, which corresponded closely with stand closure, and then declined slowly with age. Similarly, dark-period respiration rates peaked near 14 micromoles CO2 m-2 s-1 at 25 d and then gradually declined with age. Responses to short-term changes in irradiance after canopy closure indicated the stand light compensation point for photosynthesis to be near 200 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPFD. Tests in which CO2 concentration was raised to approximately 2000 micromoles mol-1 and then allowed to draw down to a compensation point showed that net photosynthesis was nearly saturated at > 1000 micromoles mol-1; below approximately 500 micromoles mol-1, net photosynthesis rates dropped sharply with decreasing CO2. The CO2 compensation point for photosynthesis occurred near 50 micromoles mol-1. Short-term (24 h) temperature tests showed net photosynthesis at 20 degrees C > or = 16 degrees C > 24 degrees C, while dark-period respiration at 24 degrees C > 20 degrees C > 16 degrees C. Rates of stand evapotranspiration peaked near Day 25 and remained relatively constant until about Day 75, after which rates declined slowly. Results from these tests will be used to model the use of plants for CO2 removal, O2 production, and water evaporation for controlled ecological life support systems proposed for extraterrestrial environments.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1993.0011183x003300010029x pubmed: 11538198
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Plant cultivation systems in CELSS: Multi-layered cultivation systems using fluorescent lamps

1993

A. Ikeda, Y. Tanimura, K. Esaki, Y. Kawaai, S. Nakayama, K. Iwao

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

A multi-layers cultivation system using fluorescent lamps as a plant cultural system in the CELSS was proposed, and its performance, productivity, and power consumption were investigated throughout cultivation tests of lettuce and tomato.
Utilizing close illumination with fluorescent lamps, 3 layers of planting beds were vertically stacked for seedling cultivation and 2 layers for growth, and the compact cultivation system could be realized. The productivity of lettuce (75g/plants) by a multi-layers system was about 5 plants/m2 (site-area) /day. The lighting power consumption and total power consumption for the production of lettuce (75g/ plant) was about 1.1 kwh/ plant and 2.5 kwh/ plant, respectively.
Thus, the lighting power consumption by close illumination was about half that of conventional high pressure sodium lamps. On the other hand, the power consumption for the production of a tomato fruit was about 2.5 kwh.

doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku1989.5.2_1 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku1989/5/2/5_2_1/_article/-char/en
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Detailed test report for regenerative life support systems test bed lettuce characterization crop II

1993

D.J. Barta, M. Edeen, C. Clark

publication: unknown

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The ASTROCULTURE-1 flight experiment: Pressure control of the WCSAR porous tube nutrient delivery system

1993

R. C. Morrow,W. R. Dinauer,R. J. Bula,T. W. Tibbitts

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

The ASTROCULTURE™-1 (ASC-1) flight experiment, flown on STS-50 as part of the U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1 mission, June 25 to July 9, 1992, successfully demonstrated the ability of the WCSAR porous tube nutrient delivery system (PTNDS) to control water movement through a paniculate rooting matrix in microgravity. One critical aspect of this demonstration was to maintain the fluid circulating through the porous tubes at a slight negative pressure. Control of the fluid loop pressure allows regulation of the amount of water maintained in the rooting matrix while preventing free water from escaping the root zone in microgravity. Pressure control in the ASC-1 flight unit was achieved by using a digital microcomputer and a proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative control algorithm to manipulate flow restrictors and pump speeds in response to changes in fluid pressure. The goal of the PTNDS control system used on ASC-1 was to maintain fluid pressure in the porous tubes within ± 0.5 cm H₂O (± 49.1 Pa) of the pressure setpoint. Data collected during flight showed an actual control accuracy of approximately ± 0.8 cm H₂O (± 78.5 Pa) over a series of pressure setpoints. During ground and flight tests, occasional control system oscillations were observed. Subsequent modification of the control algorithm eliminated these oscillations. Advanced configurations of the fluid loop pressure control system for future ASC flights will provide greater precision in pressure control and reduce mass, power and volume requirements.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44740112
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Irradiance and nitrogen to potassium ratio influences sweetpotato yield in nutrient film technique

1993

D.G. Mortley, C.K. Bonsi, W.A. Hill, P.A. Loretan, C.E. Morris

publication: Crop Science

Abstract

Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam] is being grown with the nutrient film technique as part of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) program for long-termed manned space missions. Our objective was to evaluated the effects of two levels of photosynthetic photon flux (480 and 960 μmols m−2s−1 PPF) and three N/K ratios (1:1.1, 1:2.4, and 1:3.6) on yield of sweetpotato when grown using this technique. Vine cuttings (15-cm length) of ‘Georgia Jet’ and T1-155 were grown in each treatment for 90 or 120d, respectively, in controlled-environment growth chambers. Storage root growth for Georgia Jet and T1-155 increased with light intensity, while foliage growth decreased with high K levels. The number of storage roots produced by each plant increased with intensity only for Georgia Jet but was not significantly influenced by higher K levels for either cultivar. Light by N/K interactions were not significant. The level of PPF exerted a greater effect in enhancing sweetpotato storage root yield in nutrient film than did N/K ratio.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1993.0011183X003300040030x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1993.0011183X003300040030x
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Inhibition of photosynthesis in duckweed by elevated CO2 concentrations is rapid and is not offset by a temperature induced increase in metabolic rate

1993

D.R. Smernoff, J. Gale, B.A. Macler, J. Reuveni

publication: Photosynthetica (Praha)

Abstract

The rate of net photosynthesis (P(N)), respiration and growth of [ital Lemna gibba]L. were measured as functions of time across ranges of temperature, irradiance and carbon dioxide concentrations. P(N) on an area basis increased with temperature up to 30[degree]C but decreased dramatically with a few hours of exposure to elevated CO[sub 2] when reported on a dry mass basis. Reductions in the apparent quantum efficiency, photosynthetic capacity and the affinity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase for CO[sub 2] were observed for plants grown at elevated CO[sub 2]. Starch concentration was not significantly affected by elevated CO[sub 2]. Although elevated temperature increased metabolic activity, it only partially alleviated the inhibition of P(N). [ital L. gibba] exhibits a characteristic C[sub 3]-type response to elevated CO[sub 2] and the methodology described is useful for further elucidating the mechanism of photosynthetic acclimation to elevated CO[sub 2].
link: https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/5564898
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Bioregenerative life support as self-sustaining ecosystem in space Microgravity Sci

1993

A. Haque, K. Kreuzberg

publication: Microgravity science and technology

Abstract

Recent results of research on the development of biological systems and the related technologies for life support ecosystem in space have been reviewed. The integration of higher plants and algal subsystems and the technologies for food and atmospheric regeneration, water reclamation as waste recycling are the aspects which have been dealt with and need critical evaluation before they can be tested in space. The adaptation of living organisms and their ability to multiply and regenerate in space environment during long duration missions is one of the important criteria for their final selection. It is not yet clear to what extent bioregenerative subsystems can be accommodated in the space station Freedom, which will depend on their mass and functional stability, maintainability and operational cost. But it can be expected that bioregenerative life support systems will continue to evolve during the life time of space station Freedom leading towards an integrated ecosystem with further simplification and an increased degree of closure. Several biological and physico-chemical life support systems currently developed are under investigation on the MIR space station.
pubmed: 11541491 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11541491
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The ASTROCULTURE™-1 Flight Experiment: Pressure Control of the WCSAR Porous Tube Nutrient Delivery System

1993

R.C. Morrow, W.R. Dinauer, R.J. Bula, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

The ASTROCULTURE™-1 (ASC-1) flight experiment, flown on STS-50 as part of the U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1 mission, June 25 to July 9, 1992, successfully demonstrated the ability of the WCSAR porous tube nutrient delivery system (PTNDS) to control water movement through a paniculate rooting matrix in microgravity. One critical aspect of this demonstration was to maintain the fluid circulating through the porous tubes at a slight negative pressure. Control of the fluid loop pressure allows regulation of the amount of water maintained in the rooting matrix while preventing free water from escaping the root zone in microgravity. Pressure control in the ASC-1 flight unit was achieved by using a digital microcomputer and a proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative control algorithm to manipulate flow restrictors and pump speeds in response to changes in fluid pressure. The goal of the PTNDS control system used on ASC-1 was to maintain fluid pressure in the porous tubes within ± 0.5 cm H₂O (± 49.1 Pa) of the pressure setpoint. Data collected during flight showed an actual control accuracy of approximately ± 0.8 cm H₂O (± 78.5 Pa) over a series of pressure setpoints. During ground and flight tests, occasional control system oscillations were observed. Subsequent modification of the control algorithm eliminated these oscillations. Advanced configurations of the fluid loop pressure control system for future ASC flights will provide greater precision in pressure control and reduce mass, power and volume requirements.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44740112
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Relative humidity influences yield, edible biomass, and linear growth rate of sweetpotato

1994

D.G. Mortley,C.K. Bonsi,P.A. Loretan,W.A. Hill,C.E. Morris

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Growth chamber experiments were conducted to study the physiological and growth response of sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] to either 50% or 85% relative humidity (RH). Vine cuttings of T1-155 were grown using the nutrient film technique in a randomized complete-block design with two replications. Temperature regimes of 28/22C were maintained during the light/dark periods with irradiance at canopy level of 600 µmol· m-2· s-1 and a 14/10-hour photoperiod. High RH (85%) increased the number of storage roots per plant and significantly increased storage root fresh and dry weight, but produced lower foliage fresh and dry weight than plants grown at 50% RH. Edible biomass index and linear growth rate (in grams per square meter per day) were significantly higher for plants grown at 85% than at 50% RH. Leaf photosynthesis and stomatal conductance were higher for plants at 85% than at 50% RH. Thus, the principal effect of high RH on sweetpotato growth was the production of higher storage root yield, edible biomass, growth rate, and increased photosynthetic and stomatal activity.
Studies on relative humidity (RH) effects on growth of root and tuber crops are few. Wheeler et al.(1 989) reported that three potato (Solarium tuberosum L.) cultivars grown at high RH (85%) produced increased tuber yields compared to plants grown at lower RH (50%), while leaf area was greater at the lower RH level. Crop plants, including lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)(Tibbitts and Bottenburg, 1976)

link: https://www.academia.edu/download/52419828/609.full.pdf
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Biocompatibility of wheat and tomato in dual culture hydroponic system

1994

Andrew C. Schuerger,Philip D. Laible

publication: HortScience

Abstract

‘Yecora Rojo’wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and ‘Florida Petite’tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) plants were grown in monocultured or intercropped recirculating hydroponic systems to determine whether plant growth or yield would be affected by intercropping. Mean fruit weight was slightly lower (12%) for intercropped than for monocultured tomato plants. The number of tillers per plant was slightly lower (7%) for wheat, and grain dry weight per plant and mean seed dry weight were slightly higher (14% and 15%, respectively) for intercropped than for monocultured plants. A lettuce seedling bioassay showed no evidence of allelopathic compound accumulation in monocultured or intercropped hydroponic systems.
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arvind-Singh-21/post/Is_there_any_work_published_about_inter...
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Sweetpotato biotechnology: Progress and potential

1994

C.S. Prakash

publication: Biotechnology and development monitor

Partial Abstract

Sweet potato biotechnology:Progress and potential Biotechnology and Development Monitor Biotechnology and Development Monitor 1994 ...
doi: 10.2525/ecb1963.34.105 link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1570854174261595648
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‘SVET’ space greenhouse onboard experiment data received from ‘MIR’ station and future prospects

1994

T. Ivanova,S. Sapunova,I. Dandolov,Y. Ivanov,G. Meleshko,A. Mashinsky,Y. Berkovich

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The paper describes operation of 'SVET' space greenhouse onboard the 'MIR' orbital station since 15 June 1990 and the adopted biotechnological principles. The microprocessor and measuring systems for monitoring and control of the environmental parameters in the Plants growth chamber are presented. Information about the dynamic of these parameters in the course of the first space experiments with vegetables, obtained by means of telemetric data processing, is given. A draft program for the development of next generations of greenhouses of the same type as 'SVET', but with a larger area and capabilities, is worked out.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90320-4 pubmed: 11540204 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903204
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Yield and seed oil content response of dwarf, rapid-cycling Brassica to nitrogen treatments, planting density and CO2 enrichment

1994

J. Frick, S.S. Nielsen, C.A. Mitchell

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Effects of N level (15 to 30 mM), time of N increase (14 to 28 days after planting), and planting density (1163 to 2093 plants/m2) were determined for crop yield responses of dwarf, rapid-cycling brassica (Brassica napus L., CrGC 5-2, Genome: ACaacc). Crops were grown in solid-matrix hydroponic systems and under controlled-environment conditions, including nonsupplemented (ambient) or elevated CO2 concentrations (998 +/- 12 micromoles mol-1). The highest seed yield rate obtained (4.4 g m-2 day-1) occurred with the lowest N level (15 mM) applied at the latest treatment time (day 28). In all trials, CO2 enrichment reduced seed yield rate and harvest index by delaying the onset of flowering and senescence and stimulating vegetative shoot growth. The highest shoot biomass accumulation rate (55.5 g m-2 day-1) occurred with the highest N level (30 mM) applied at the earliest time (day 14). Seed oil content was not significantly affected by CO2 enrichment. Maximum seed oil content (30% to 34%, dry weight basis) was obtained using the lowest N level (15 mM) initiated at the latest treatment time (day 28). In general, an increase in seed oil content was accompanied by a decrease in seed protein. Seed carbohydrate, moisture, and ash contents did not vary significantly in response to experimental treatments. Effects of N level and time of N increase were consistently significant for most crop responses. Planting density was significant only under elevated CO2 conditions.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.119.6.1137 pubmed: 11540952 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cary-Mitchell/publication/11805401_Yield_and_Seed_Oil_Conten...
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Efficient, full-spectrum, long-lived, non-toxic microwave lamp for plant growth

1994

D.A. MacLennan, B.P. Turner, J.T. Dolan, M.G. Ury, P. Gustafson

publication: NASA …

Partial Abstract

Fusion Systems Corporation has developed a mercury-free, low infra-red, efficient microwave lamp using a benign sulfur based fill optimized for visible light. Our literature search and discussions with researchers directed us to enhance the bulbs red output. We have demonstrated a photosynthetic efficacy of over 2 micro-moles per microwave joule which corresponds to over 1.3 micro-moles per joule at the power main. Recent work has shown we can make additional increases in overall system efficiency. During the next two ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=rcIhAQAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA243&dq=Efficient,+full-spect...
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Effect of carbon dioxide enrichment on radish production using nutrient film technique (NFT

1994

C.L. Mackowiak, L.M. Ruffe, N.C. Yorio, R.M. Wheeler

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Radish plants (Raphanus sativus L. cvs. Cherry Belle, Giant White Globe, and Early Scarlet Globe) were grown in four different CO2 enriched environments, 0.04, 0.10, 0.50, and 1.00 kPa (400, 1000, 5000, 10000 ppm). Cultivar responses to CO2 treatments varied, where cv. Cherry Belle showed no significant response to CO2 enrichment, cv. Giant White Globe was moderately affected and Early Scarlet Globe was strongly affected. Enrichment at 0.10 kPa led to greater root dry matter (DM) than 1.00 kPa for cv. Giant White Glove, whereas 0.10 kPa produced greater storage root, shoot, and root DM than 1.00 kPa for cv. Early Scarlet Globe. The data suggest that 1.00 kPa CO2 may be detrimental to the growth of certain radish cultivars. Root:shoot ratios tended to increase with increasing CO2 concentration. Water use efficiency (g biomass/kg H2O) increased with increasing CO2 enrichment, up to 0.5 kPa but then declined at the 1.00 kPa treatment. The total nitric acid used to maintain nutrient solution pH was lowest at the 1.00 kPa treatment as well, suggesting a decreased demand of nutrients by the plants at the highest CO2 level.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19940022908
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Water recycling system for combined fish culture and plant production (Part I). Waste fish water management for plant production

1994

T. Saito, T. Siga, K. Otsubo, K. Watanabe, S. Tojo, F. Ai

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Humidity and temperature control in the ASTROCULTURE flight experiment

1994

Neil A. Duffie,Raymond J. Bula,Robert C. Morrow,Paul E. Quirin,Philip D. Macaulay,Steven R. Wranovsky,John C. Vignali,Theodore W. Tibbits

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

The ASTROCULTURE (ASC) middeck flight experiment series was developed to test subsystems required to grow plants in reduced gravity, with the goal of developing a plant growth unit suitable for conducting quality biological research in microgravity. Previous Space Shuttle flights (STS-50 and STS-57) have successfully demonstrated the ability to control water movement through a particulate rooting matrix in microgravity and the ability of LED lighting systems to provide high levels of irradiance without excessive heat build-up in microgravity. The humidity and temperature control system used in the middeck flight unit is described in this paper. The system controls air flow and provides dehumidification, humidification, and condensate recovery for a plant growth chamber volume of 1450 cm³. It provides the ASC flight units with a level of environmental control equivalent to most terrestrial plant growth chambers and has been shown to be capable of controlling humidity levels in the chamber to within 5% relative humidity over a range of 50% to 90% RH and air temperature levels in the chamber within 2°C. However, in this prototype unit, control is limited to the range of 24°C to 35°C. A prototype system was tested with no plants on STS-60, and a flight unit is currently scheduled to be tested on STS-63 in which the first experiments with plants will be conducted.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44614875
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Modeling gas exchange in a closed plant growth chamber

1994

J.D. Cornett,J.E. Hendrix,R.M. Wheeler,C.W. Ross,W.Z. Sadeh

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Fluid transport models for fluxes of water vapor and CO2 have been developed for one crop of wheat and three crops of soybean grown in a closed plant growth chamber. Correspondence among these fluxes is discussed. Maximum fluxes of gases are provided for engineering design requirements of fluid recycling equipment in growth chambers. Furthermore, to investigate the feasibility of generalized crop models, dimensionless representations of water vapor fluxes are presented. The feasibility of such generalized models and the need for additional data are discussed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90319-0 pubmed: 11540203 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903190
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The structure and function of microbial communities in recirculating hydroponic systems

1994

J.L. Garland

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Strategies to control the microbial community associated with plant growth systems need to be based on a fundamental understanding of the factors which structure and regulate the community. Spatial and temporal patterns in the abundance and production rate of microorganisms in hydroponic systems containing wheat were examined to evaluate how root-derived carbon is processed. The relevance of results to monitoring and control strategies is discussed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90325-5 pubmed: 11540209 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903255
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Nutrient mass balances and recovery strategies for growing plants in a CELSS

1994

C.L. Mackowiak, R.M. Wheeler, W.L. Berry, J.L. Garland

publication: HortScience

Partial Abstract

Wheat, soybean, potato, and lettuce crops were grown in a large (20 m 2), closed chamber to test plant production for life support in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS). Plant crude protein levels were about 15% in wheat and potato biomass, 20% in soybean biomass, and 27% in lettuce biomass at harvest. Nitrate levels were not assayed, but likely contributed to the protein estimates. Nitric acid (used in hydroponic system pH control) contributed 43% for wheat nitrogen needs, 33% for soybean, 30% for potato, and ...
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.29.5.464b link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/29/5/article-p464b.xml
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A more completely defined CELSS

1994

A. E. Drysdale,H. A. Dooley,W. M. Knott,J. C. Sager,R. M. Wheeler,G. W. Stutte,C. L. Mackowiak

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

A CELSS has been defined based on current or near-term technology. The CELSS was sized to support the metabolic load of four people on the Moon for ten years. A metabolic load of 14 MJ/person/day is assumed, including an average of 2.6 hr of EVA/person/day. Close to 100% closure of water, and oxygen, and 85% closure of the food loop is assumed. With 15% of the calories supplied from Earth, this should provide adequate dietary variety for the crew along with vitamin and mineral requirements. Other supply and waste removal requirements are addressed.
The basic shell used is a Space Station Freedom 7.3 m (24 ft) module. This is assumed to be buried in regolith to provide protection from radiation, meteoroids, and thermal extremes. A solar dynamic power system is assumed, with a design life of 10 years delivering power at 368 kWh/kg. Initial estimates of size are that 73 m2 of plant growth area are required, giving a plant growth volume of about 73 m3. This assumes a mixture of crops achieving production rates equal to the best published data. With a volume of 108 m3 per module, other support equipment can be accommodated within one module. In particular, anaerobic and aerobic digestion is used to recycle inedible biomass. Automation is used to the extent necessary to keep manpower requirements in the range of 10% of the supported crew time. About 100 kW of electrical power is required, primarily driven by plant irradiance. Because of the cost of rejecting low-grade waste heat to the environment during the lunar day, sunlight is assumed to be used directly for plant irradiance when available.
The goal of this design concept was to focus our thoughts. We believe it represents something that is achievable, although there are uncertainties in the data used to develop it. Among these uncertainties are the effects of fractional gravity and closure on plant growth and other biological processes, the need for appropriate automation and materials handling technologies, and the relative costs of infrastructure utilities (mass transportation, electricity, manpower, etc.).

doi: 10.4271/941292 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/941292/
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Condensate recycling in closed plant growth chambers

1994

R. E. Fortson,J. O. Bledsoe,J. C. Sager

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Water used in the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Breadboard Project at the Kennedy Space Center is being recycled. Condensation is collected in the air ducts, filtered and deionized, and resupplied to the system for nutrient solutions, supplemental humidification, solvents and diluents. While the system functions well from a process control standpoint, precise and accurate tracking of water movement through the system to answer plant physiological questions is not consistent. Possible causes include hardware errors, undetected vapor loss from chamber leakage, and unmeasured changes in water volume in the plant growth trays.
doi: 10.4271/941543 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/941543/
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Development of an intermediate-scale aerobic bioreactor to regenerate nutrients from inedible crop residues

1994

Barry W. Finger,Richard F. Strayer

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

Three Intermediate-Scale Aerobic Bioreactors were designed, fabricated, and operated. They utilized mixed microbial communities to bio-degrade plant residues. The continuously stirred tank reactors operated at a working volume of 8 L, and the average oxygen mass transfer coefficient, kLa, was 0.01 s⁻¹. Mixing time was 35 s. An experiment using inedible wheat residues, a replenishment rate of 0.125 day⁻¹ , and a solids loading rate of 20 gdw day⁻¹ yielded a 48% reduction in biomass. Bioreactor effluent was successfully used to regenerate a wheat hydroponic nutrient solution. Over 80% of available potassium, calcium, and other minerals were recovered and recycled in the 76-day wheat growth experiment.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44614959
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Object-oriented model-driven control

1994

A. Drysdale,M. McRoberts,J. Sager,R. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A monitoring and control subsystem architecture has been developed that capitalizes on the use of model-driven monitoring and predictive control, knowledge-based data representation, and artificial reasoning in an operator support mode. We have developed an object-oriented model of a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS). The model, based on the NASA Kennedy Space Center CELSS breadboard data, tracks carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water. It estimates and tracks resource-related parameters such as mass, energy, and manpower measurements such as growing area required for balance. We are developing an interface with the breadboard systems that is compatible with artificial reasoning. Initial work is being done on use of expert systems and user interface development. This paper presents our approach to defining universally applicable CELSS monitor and control issues, and implementing appropriate monitor and control capability for a particular instance: the KSC CELSS Breadboard Facility.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90315-8 pubmed: 11540199 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903158
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Opportunities and constraints of closed man-made ecological systems on the moon

1994

V. Blüm,J.I. Gitelson,G. Horneck,K. Kreuzberg

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Most scenarios for a manned lunar base include a combination of physical-chemical and bioregenerative life support systems. Especially on the lunar surface, however, there is a series of special environmental factors which seriously affect the organisms suitable for food production and biological regeneration of the habitat atmosphere and water. So, e.g. the lunar day/night period creates difficult problems for higher plant culture. The paper presents the current scientific approaches to bioregenerative life support systems of a lunar base and discusses critically the possibilities of their realization. Moreover, a scientific strategy is developed with the biologist's point of view to implement in a stepwise manner bioregenerative life support modules into a lunar base covering the possibilities of the untilization of chemolytotrophic bacteria, microalgae and higher plants as well as those of animal breeding and protein production in intensive aquaculture systems.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90038-8 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794900388
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Controlled environment intercropping of lettuce and tomatoes

1994

H.W. Janes

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Proximate nutritional composition of CELSS crops grown at different CO2 partial pressures

1994

R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,J.C. Sager,W.M. Knott,W.L. Berry

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Two CELSS candidate crops, soybean (Glycine max) and potato (Solanum tuberosum), were grown hydroponically in controlled environments maintained at carbon dioxide (CO2) partial pressures ranging from 0.05 to 1.00 kPa (500 to 10,000 ppm at 101 kPa atmospheric pressure). Plants were harvested at maturity (90 days for soybean and 105 days for potato) and all tissues analyzed for proximate nutritional composition (i.e. protein, fat, carbohydrate, crude fiber, and ash content). Soybean seed ash and crude fiber were higher and carbohydrate was lower than values reported for field-grown seed. Potato tubers showed little difference from field-grown tubers. With the exception of increased crude fiber of soybean seed with increased CO2, no trends were apparent with regard to CO2 effects on proximate composition of soybean seed and potato tubers. Crude fiber of soybean stems and leaves increased with increased CO2, as did soybean leaf protein (total nitrogen). Potato leaf and stem (combined) protein levels also increased with increased CO2, while leaf and stem carbohydrates decreased. Values for leaf and stem protein and ash were higher than values generally reported for field-grown plants for both species. Results suggest that CO2 partial pressure should have little influence on proximate composition of potato tubers or soybean seed, but that high ash and protein levels might be expected from leaves and stems of crops grown in controlled environments of a CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90294-1 pubmed: 11540178 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794902941
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Performance and reliability of the CELSS Biomass Production Chamber

1994

RE Fortson, JC Sager, PV Chetirkin

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) at the Kennedy Space Center is part of the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Breadboard Project. Plants are grown in a closed environment in an effort to quantify their contributions to the requirements for life support. Performance of this system is described. Also, in building this system, data from component and subsystem failures are being recorded. These data are used to identify problem areas in the design and implementation. The techniques used to measure the reliability will be useful in the design and construction of future CELSS. Possible methods for determining the reliability of a green plant, the primary component of a CELSS, are discussed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90317-4 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903174
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Performance and reliability of the NASA Biomass Production Chamber

1994

R.E. Fortson,J.C. Sager,P.V. Chetirkin

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) at the Kennedy Space Center is part of the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Breadboard Project. Plants are grown in a closed environment in an effort to quantify their contributions to the requirements for life support. Performance of this system is described. Also, in building this system, data from component and subsystem failures are being recorded. These data are used to identify problem areas in the design and implementation. The techniques used to measure the reliability will be useful in the design and construction of future CELSS. Possible methods for determining the reliability of a green plant, the primary component of a CELSS, are discussed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90317-4 pubmed: 11540201 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903174
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Measurement of rice crop metabolism using closed-type plant cultivation equipment

1994

M. Oguchi,K. Nitta,K. Ohtsubo,Y. Tako

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

In order to determine a required plant cultivation area which can sustain human life in a closed environment, the material circulating measurement system including a Closed-type Plant Cultivation Equipment (CPCE) in which the metabolic data of plants can be accurately measured has been constructed. According to results from cultivation experiments using rice, the harvest index was 29.9% for 110 days, and the required crop area to supply food, oxygen and water for one person was calculated to be about 111m2, 36m2 and 0.9m2, respectively.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90303-4 pubmed: 11540188 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903034
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Temperature and light effects of sweetpotatoes grown hydroponically

1994

C.K. Bonsi, D.G. Mortley, P.A. Loretan, W.A. Hill

publication: International Symposium on New Cultivation Systems in Greenhouse

Abstract

Vine cuttings (15cm lengths) of two sweetpotato cultivars ‘Ga Jet’ and ‘TI-155’ were planted into trays using the Tuskegee University Nutrient Film Technique described by Hill et al. (1988) in four environmental growth chambers. Light intensity of approximately 400 umol m-2s-1, relative humidity at 70±5% and ambient CO22 level were maintained in each chamber. Plants were subjected to 24h photoperiod, or 12:12h light/dark photoperiod with either constant temperature of 28°C or diurnal temperature of 28/22°C. The nutrient solution used consisted of modified half-Hoagland with N:K ratio of 1:2.4. Each growth chamber contained two channels and each channel contained four plants spaced 25cm apart. Plants were harvested 90 days after planting and yield in terms of fresh and dry weights of foliage and storage roots was measured. Results showed varietal differences in the response of ‘Ga Jet’ and ‘TI-155’ sweetpotato plants to continuous light. Continuous light combined with diurnal temperature of 28/22°C resulted in significant storage root yield increases of ‘Ga -Jet’ sweetpotato. However no storage roots were produced when ‘TI-155’ sweetpotato plants were exposed to similar conditions. Continuous light combined with constant temperature resulted in no storage root production in both cultivars. Highest foliage yield for both cultivars
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1994.361.58 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/361/361_58.htm
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Use of lunar regolith as a substrate for plant growth

1994

D.W. Ming,D.L. Henninger

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Regenerative Life Support Systems (RLSS) will be required to regenerate air, water, and wastes, and to produce food for human consumption during long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. It may be possible to supplement some of the materials needed for a lunar RLSS from resources on the Moon. Natural materials at the lunar surface may be used for a variety of lunar RLSS needs, including (i) soils or solid-support substrates for plant growth, (ii) sources for extraction of essential, plant-growth nutrients, (iii) substrates for microbial populations in the degradation of wastes, (iv) sources of O2 and H2, which may be used to manufacture water, (v) feed stock materials for the synthesis of useful minerals (e.g., molecular sieves), and (vi) shielding materials surrounding the outpost structure to protect humans, plants, and microorganisms from harmful radiation. Use of indigenous lunar regolith as a terrestrial-like soil for plant growth could offer a solid support substrate, buffering capacity, nutrient source/storage/retention capabilities, and should be relatively easy to maintain. The lunar regolith could, with a suitable microbial population, play a role in waste renovation; much like terrestrial waste application directly on soils. Issues associated with potentially toxic elements, pH, nutrient availability, air and fluid movement parameters, and cation exchange capacity of lunar regolith need to be addressed before lunar materials can be used effectively as soils for plant growth.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90333-6 pubmed: 11538023 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903336
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Effects of several environmental factors on sweetpotato growth

1994

P.A. Loretan,C.K. Bonsi,D.G. Mortley,R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,W.A. Hill,C.E. Morris,A.A. Trotman,P.P. David

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Effects of relative humidity, light intensity and photoperiod on growth of 'Ga Jet' and 'TI-155' sweetpotato cultivars, using the nutrient film technique (NFT), have been reported. In this study, the effect of ambient temperature regimes (constant 28 degrees C and diurnal 28:22 degrees C day:night) and different CO2 levels (ambient, 400, 1000 and 10000 microliters/L--400, 1000 and 10000 ppm) on growth of one or both of these cultivars in NFT are reported. For a 24-h photoperiod, no storage roots were produced for either cultivar in NFT when sweetpotato plants were grown at a constant temperature of 28 degrees C. For the same photoperiod, when a 28:22 degrees C diurnal temperature variation was used, there were still no storage roots for 'TI-155' but the cv. 'Ga Jet' produced 537 g/plant of storage roots. For both a 12-h and 24-h photoperiod, 'Ga Jet' storage root fresh and dry weight tended to be higher with a 28:22 degrees C diurnal temperature variation than with a constant 28 degrees C temperature regime. Preliminary results with both 'Ga Jet' and 'TI 155' cultivars indicate a distinctive diurnal stomatal response for sweetpotato grown in NFT under an ambient CO2 level. The stomatal conductance values observed for 'Ga Jet' at elevated CO2 levels indicated that the difference between the light- and dark-period conductance rates persisted at 400, 1000, and 10000 microliters/L.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90308-5 pubmed: 11540193 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903085
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Growth of soybean and potato at high CO2 partial pressure

1994

R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,J.C. Sager,W.M. Knott

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Soybean and potato plants were grown in controlled environments at carbon dioxide (CO2) partial pressures ranging from 0.05 to 1.00 kPa. The highest yields of edible biomass occurred at 0.10 kPa for both species, with higher CO2 levels being supraoptimal, but not injurious to the plants. Stomatal conductance rates of upper canopy leaves were lowest at 0.10 kPa CO2, while conductance rates at 0.50 and 1.00 kPa were significantly greater than 0.10 kPa. Total water use by the plants was greatest at the highest CO2 pressures (i.e. 0.50 and 1.00 kPa); consequently, water use efficiencies (biomass produced/water used) were low at the highest CO2 pressures. Based on previous CO2 studies in the literature, the increased conductance and water use at the highest CO2 pressures were surprising and pose interesting challenges for managing plants in a CELSS, where CO2 pressures may exceed optimal levels.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90305-0 pubmed: 11540190 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903050
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A method for modeling transpiration in CELSS. AIAA 94-4573

1994

A.C. McCormack, B. Bugbee, O. Monje, R. Sirko

publication: Space Programs and Technologies Conference and Exhibit

Abstract

To aid in the design and operation of CELSS, a transpiration model is being developed using an energy- balance approach. The same principles that have been successfully used to mode! the energy balance of single leaves are being applied tocanopies in controlled environments. Incoming net radiation absorbed by the plants is partitioned into sensible and latent heat losses. Canopy photosynthesis is included in the energy balance equation because it represents 7-10% of the total energy. Measurements are used to quantify the canopy aerodynamic conductance for sensible heat transfer and the canopy stomatal conductance for latent heat transfer. Parameters affecting these conductances, or the energy balance, include: wind speed, net radiation input, canopy net photosynthesis, leaf to air vapor pressure gradient, average Canopy temperature, leaf area index, canopy surface roughness, stage of canopy development, and percent tadiation absorption. A matrix of test conditions has been developed using the tools of Design of Experiments. Testing will be done to characterize the long-term response of plant transpiration to changes in environmental conditions.
doi: 10.2514/6.1994-4573 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.1994-4573
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Growth and gas exchange by lettuce stands in a closed, controlled environment

1994

R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,J.C. Sager,N.C. Yorio,W.M. Knott,W.L. Berry

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Two studies were conducted in which 'Waldmann's Green' lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was grown hydroponically from seed to harvest in a large (20-m2), atmospherically closed growth chamber for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) program. The first study used metal-halide (MH) lamps [280 micromoles m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF)], whereas the second used high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps (293 micromoles m-2 s-1). Both studies used a 16-hour photoperiod, a constant air temperature (22 to 23C), and 1000 micromoles mol-1 CO2 during the light period. In each study, canopy photosynthesis and evapotranspiration (ET) rates were highly correlated to canopy cover, with absolute rates peaking at harvest (28 days after planting ) at 17 micromoles CO2/m2 per sec and 4 liters m-2 day-1, respectively. When normalized for actual canopy cover, photosynthesis and ET rates per unit canopy area decreased with age (between 15 and 28 days after planting). Canopy cover increased earlier during the study with HPS lamps, and final shoot yields averaged 183 g fresh mass (FM)/plant 8.8 g dry mass (DM)/plant. Shoot yields in the first study with MH lamps averaged 129 g FM/plant and 6.8 g DM/plant. Analysis of leaf tissue showed that ash levels from both studies averaged 22% and K levels ranged from 15% to 17% of tissue DM. Results suggest that lettuce should be easily adaptable to a CELSS with moderate lighting and that plant spacing or transplant schemes are needed to maximize canopy light interception and sustained efficient CO2 removal and water production.
pubmed: 11538197 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cheryl-Mackowiak/publication/11808645_Growth_and_Gas_Exchang...
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Prospects of biological decomposition of inedible plant biomass on long-term space missions

1994

D.T. Smernoff, B. Saugier, V. Fabreguettes

publication: Life Sciences Research in Space

Abstract

Biological waste processing methods require increased research prior to their use in missions envisioned for the Moon and Mars. The potential for using microbial metabolism and, for exploiting natural controls on rates of decomposition, to process inedible plant biomass on long-duration space missions are discussed Manipulation of environmental parameters such as temperature, soil moisture and soil type have been used to vary rates of decomposition. Subsequent experimental and modeling approaches are discussed, including assessing the effects of elevated CO) and temperature on carbon cycling within terrestrial ecosystems, Characterization of soil decomposition processes within closed systems, and a systematic approach for defining and/or designing specific microbial communities could result in efficient, reliable and versatile biological systems for handling the waste streams generated by crewed missions.
link: https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1994ESASP.366..239S
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A root moisture sensor for plants in microgravity

1994

G.J. Clark,G.E. Neville,T.W. Dreschel

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Development of components for bioregenerative life-support systems is a vital step toward long-term space exploration. The culturing of plants in a microgravity environment may be optimized by the use of appropriate sensors and controllers. This paper describes a sensor developed for determining the amount of fluid (nutrient solution) available on the surface of a porous ceramic nutrient delivery substrate to the roots of conventional crop plants. The sensor is based on the change in thermal capacitance and thermal conductance near the surface as the moisture content changes. The sensor could be employed as a data acquisition and control sensor to support the automated monitoring of plants grown in a microgravity environment.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90299-2 pubmed: 11540184 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794902992
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Man as a component of a closed ecological life support system

1994

J.I. Gitelson, Yu N. Okladnikov

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Material support of all manned space flights so far has been provided from a prestored stock of substances or replenished from the Earth's biosphere. Exploration of space will, however, become real only when man is able to break away from Earth completely, when he will be accompanied by a system providing everything necessary to sustain full-valued life for an unlimited time. The only known system to date meeting this requirement is the Earth's biosphere. To break away from his cradle, as K.E. Tsiolkovsky called Earth, it is necessary to devise a life support system functionally similar to the natural biosphere. This need not be similar in structure to the vast diversity of trophic relationships available on Earth, but requires the solution of a multitude of various problems of an ecological, physiological, engineering and social-psychological nature. Human life-support systems based on biological regeneration of environments in small volumes have been studied at the Institute of Biophysics (Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences) over many years. This work has resulted in the design of Bios-3, a biologically-based self-sustained human life support system.
pubmed: 11538717 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11538717
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Exposure with far-red radiation for control of oedema injury on ‘Yale’ ivy geranium

1994

Anusuya Rangarajan,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Oedema, a physiological disorder, affects several cultivars of ivy geranium [Pelargonium peltatum (L.) L `Hér. ex Ait) when grown in greenhouses. This study investigated the regulation of oedema on this crop using far-red radiation because these wavelengths inhibited the injury on Solanaceous sp. Plants were exposed to far-red radiation from Sylvania #232 far-red lamps on abaxial and adaxial surfaces of leaves. A far-red photon flux of 15 to 20 μmol·m ⁻² ·s ⁻¹ (700-S00 nm) was not effective in preventing oedema injury. A far-red abaxial treatment during the light period tended to reduce the amount of injury that developed when photosynthetic photon flux was low (130-170 μmol·m ⁻² ·s ⁻¹ ), but this inhibition of the injury was absent with higher photon flux. The results from these studies indicate the use of supplemental far-red radiation treatments in greenhouses would not be justified because adequate and consistent control of the injury on ivy geraniums was not achieved.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.29.1.38 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/233861049_Exposure_with_Far-re...
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Growth regulator effects of water soluble materials from crop residues for use in plant hydroponic culture

1994

C.L. Mackowiak, J.L. Garland, G.W. Stutte

publication: …

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Carbon dioxide interactions with irradiance and temperature in potatoes

1994

W. Cao,T.W. Tibbitts,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Separate controlled environment studies were conducted to determine the interaction of CO2 with irradiance and interaction of CO2 with temperature on growth of three potato cultivars. In the first study, an elevated CO2 concentration of 1000 micromoles mol-1 and an ambient CO2 of 350 micromoles mol-1 were maintained at the photosynthetic photon fluxes (PPF) of 17 and 34 mol m-2 d-1 with 12 h photoperiod, and at the PPF of 34 and 68 mol m-2 d-1 with 24 h photoperiod (400 and 800 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF at each photoperiod). Tuber and total dry weights of 90-day old potatoes were significantly increased with CO2 enrichment, but the CO2 stimulation was less with higher PPF and longer photoperiod. Shoot dry weight was affected more by photoperiod than by PPF and CO2 concentrations. The elevated CO2 concentration increased leaf CO2 assimilation rates and decreased stomatal conductance with 12 h photoperiod, but had only a marginal effect with 24 h photoperiod. In the second study, four CO2 concentrations of 500, 1000, 1500 and 2000 micromoles mol-1 were combined with two air temperature regimes of 16 and 20 degrees C under a 12 h photoperiod. At harvest, 35 days after transplanting, tuber and total dry weights of potatoes reached a maximum with 1000 micromoles mol-1 CO2 at 16 degrees C, but continued to increase up to 2000 micromoles mol-1 CO2 at 20 degrees C. Plant growth was greater at 20 degrees C than at 16 degrees C under all CO2 concentrations. At 16 degrees C specific leaf weight increased substantially with increasing CO2 concentrations as compared to 500 micromoles mol-1 CO2, but increased only slightly at 20 degrees C. This suggests a carbohydrate build-up in the leaves at 16 degrees C temperature that reduces plant response to increased CO2 concentrations. The data in the two studies indicate that a PPF of 34 mol m-2 d-1, 20 degrees C temperature, and 1000-2000 micromoles mol-1 CO2 produces optimal tuber yield in potatoes.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90304-2 pubmed: 11540189 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903042
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SYMBIOSE” system for microgravity bioregenerative support of experiments

1994

F. Brechignac,L. Wolf

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

SYMBIOSE is an ESA supported research and development program which aims at establishing a first pilot model of a closed ecological system, compatible with operation in weightlessness conditions, and dedicated to scientific investigations in the microgravity environment. It integrates microalgal photosynthesis within an artificial ecosystem featuring a symbiotic strain of Chlorella (241 .80, Gottingen), which synthesizes and excretes substantial amounts of maltose, and is further looped on a consumer compartment. A technological concept has been developed. It is presently being integrated in order to gain knowledge on the system dynamics, and ultimately demonstrate the feasibility of such a biotechnology. Preliminary work on the photosynthetic metabolism of this microalga is being undertaken in order 1) to support later a mathematical formalisation of the dynamics of this artificial ecosystem, and, on this basis, 2) to compensate for its lack of stability with model-based external control. The most recent results are presented, along with a new design of the photobioreactor which integrates efficient light energy capture, microgravity compatible gas transfer and reduced shear stress.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90283-6 pubmed: 11540222 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794902836
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Porous tube plant nutrient delivery system development: A device for nutrient delivery in microgravity

1994

T.W. Dreschel,C.S. Brown,W.C. Piastuch,C.R. Hinkle,W.M. Knott

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The Porous Tube Plant Nutrient Delivery System or PTPNDS (U.S. Patent #4,926,585) has been under development for the past six years with the goal of providing a means for culturing plants in microgravity, specifically providing water and nutrients to the roots. Direct applications of the PTPNDS include plant space biology investigations on the Space Shuttle and plant research for life support in Space Station Freedom. In the past, we investigated various configurations, the suitability of different porous materials, and the effects of pressure and pore size on plant growth. Current work is focused on characterizing the physical operation of the system, examining the effects of solution aeration, and developing prototype configurations for the Plant Growth Unit (PGU), the flight system for the Shuttle mid-deck. Future developments will involve testing on KC-135 parabolic flights, the design of flight hardware and testing aboard the Space Shuttle.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90278-x pubmed: 11540217 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779490278X
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Horticulture in human life, culture, and environment

1994

E. Matsuo, P.D. Relf

publication: Acta Horticulturae

Abstract

This is a collection of 33 papers presented at the XXIV International Horticultural Congress held in Kyoto on 21-27 August 1994. Topics featured include horticultural education and employment, horticultural therapy, marketing, consumer values, ethnology, the use of plants to improve the indoor environment and urban horticulture.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19950313712
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The influence of elevated CO2 on non-structural carbohydrate distribution and fructan accumulation in wheat canopies

1994

D. R. SMART,N. J. CHATTERTON,B. BUGBEE

publication: Plant, cell & environment

Abstract

We grew 2.4 m2 wheat canopies in a large growth chamber under high photosynthetic photon flux (1000 micromoles m-2 s-1) and using two CO2 concentrations, 360 and 1200 micromoles mol-1. Photosynthetically active radiation (400-700 nm) was attenuated slightly faster through canopies grown in 360 micromoles mol-1 than through canopies grown in 1200 micromoles mol-1, even though high-CO2 canopies attained larger leaf area indices. Tissue fractions were sampled from each 5-cm layer of the canopies. Leaf tissue sampled from the tops of canopies grown in 1200 micromoles mol-1 accumulated significantly more total non-structural carbohydrate, starch, fructan, sucrose, and glucose (p < 0.05) than for canopies grown in 360 micromoles mol-1. Non-structural carbohydrate did not significantly increase in the lower canopy layers of the elevated CO2 treatment. Elevated CO2 induced fructan synthesis in all leaf tissue fractions, but fructan formation was greatest in the uppermost leaf area. A moderate temperature reduction of 10 degrees C over 5 d increased starch, fructan and glucose levels in canopies grown in 1200 micromoles mol-1, but concentrations of sucrose and fructose decreased slightly or remained unchanged. Those results may correspond with the use of fructosyl-residues and release of glucose when sucrose is consumed in fructan synthesis.
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.1994.tb00312.x pubmed: 11537974 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-3040.1994.tb00312.x
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Light-emitting diodes as a light source for photosynthesis research

1994

Daniel J. Tennessen,Eric L. Singsaas,Thomas D. Sharkey

publication: Photosynthesis research

Abstract

Light-emitting diodes (LED) can provide large fluxes of red photons and so could be used to make lightweight, efficient lighting systems for photosynthetic research. We compared photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and isoprene emission (a sensitive indicator of ATP status) from leaves of kudzu (Pueraria lobata (Willd) Ohwi.) enclosed in a leaf chamber illuminated by LEDs versus by a xenon arc lamp. Stomatal conductance was measured to determine if red LED light could sufficiently open stomata. The LEDs produced an even field of red light (peak emission 656±5 nm) over the range of 0–1500 μmol m-2 s-1. Under ambient CO2 the photosynthetic response to red light deviated slightly from the response measured in white light and stomatal conductance followed a similar pattern. Isoprene emission also increased with light similar to photosynthesis in white light and red light. The response of photosynthesis to CO2 was similar under the LED and xenon arc lamps at equal photosynthetic irradiance of 1000 μmol m-2 s-1. There was no statistical difference between the white light and red light measurements in high CO2. Some leaves exhibited feedback inhibition of photosynthesis which was equally evident under irradiation of either lamp type. Photosynthesis research including electron transport, carbon metabolism and trace gas emission studies should benefit greatly from the increased reliability, repeatability and portability of a photosynthesis lamp based on light-emitting diodes.
doi: 10.1007/BF00027146 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00027146
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International lighting in controlled environments workshop. NASA Technical Document NASA-CP-95-3309, Kennedy Space

1994

T.W. Tibbitts

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

PLANT REQUIREMENTS Photosynthesis... General Lighting Requirements for Photosynthesis; DR Geiger Regulation of Assimilate Partitioning by Daylength and Spectral Quality; S. Britz Spectral Composition of Light and Growing of Plants in Controlled Environments; AA Tikhomirov ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=rcIhAQAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=International+lighting+...
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Dynamics of microorganism populations in recirculating nutrient solutions

1994

R.F. Strayer

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

This overview covers the basic microbial ecology of recirculating hydroponic solutions. Examples from NASA and Soviet CELSS tests and the commercial hydroponic industry will be used. The sources of microorganisms in nutrient solutions include air, water, seeds, plant containers and plumbing, biological vectors, and personnel. Microbial fates include growth, death, and emigration. Important microbial habitats within nutrient delivery systems are root surfaces, hardware surfaces (biofilms), and solution suspension. Numbers of bacteria on root surfaces usually exceed those from the other habitats by several orders of magnitude. Gram negative bacteria dominate the microflora with fungal counts usually much lower. Trends typically show a decrease in counts with increasing time unless stressed plants increase root exudates. Important microbial activities include carbon mineralization and nitrogen transformations. Important detrimental interactions include competition with plants, and human and plant pathogenesis.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90322-0 pubmed: 11540206 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903220
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C.E.B.A.S.-AQUARACK project: The mini-module as tool in artificial ecosystem research

1994

V. Blüm,E. Stretzke,K. Kreuzberg

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

The evolution of the C.E.B.A.S-AQUARACK project including results of the scientific frame program was frequently presented at the IAA Man in Space Symposia 1989 and 1991 and the IAF/IAA congresses since 1990. C.E.B.A.S. (Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System) is a combined animal/plant system for long-term multi-generation experiments with aquatic organisms in ground laboratories and in a space station. For short-term missions a miniaturized version was developed which fits into a spacelab middeck locker together with all surrounding equipment. The latest development is an optimized prototype with a total volume of about 11 liters which consists of a main animal tank (Zoological Component) with integrated bacteria filter, a semibiological coarse filter, an illuminated higher plant container (Botanical Component) and combined small animal and electrode compartment. A silastic tubing gas exchanger in a closed side-loop serves as an emergency unit in case of the malfunction of the Botanical Component and the water is driven through the system by rotatory pumps. It is operative for several weeks in closed state. This C.E.B.A.S. Mini-Module also represents an aquatic artificial ecosystem in which basic scientific problems of component interactions and system theory can be solved with the side aspects of combined production of animal and plant food in bioregenerative life support systems. The paper presents details of the current statuts of the hardware development and data about the function of the fully biological life support of the system, e. g. mid-term registrations of water parameters. Moreover, morphological and pysiological data of the experimental animals (-the teleost fish Xiphophorus helleri-) and plants (-a tropical Ceratophyllum species-) demonstrate the biological stability of the system. These are used to elaborate first details of population interactions and inter-dependencies as a basis of a disposed comprehensive system analysis which is the essential precondition for the design of possible aquatic modules for bioregenerative life support systems.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(94)90122-8 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0094576594901228
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Tuber initiation in hydroponically grown potatoes by alteration of solution pH

1994

Waylen Y. Wan,Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: HortScience

Abstract

The effects were studied of intermittent pH reductions of the nutrient solution on tuber initiation in potatoes cv. Norland in solution culture. Tissue-cultured potato plantlets were transplanted into solutions maintained at pH 5.5. The pH of the nutrient solution was changed to 3.5 or 4.0 for 10 h 30, 35 and/or 40 d after transplanting or maintained at 5.5. For the pH 3.5 treatment, tubers were observed first on day 42 and averaged 140 tubers/plant at harvest on day 54. For the pH 4.0 treatment, tubers were observed first on day 48 and averaged 40 tubers/plant at harvest. At a constant pH 5.5, tubers were observed on day 52 and averaged 2 tubers/plant at harvest. Plants with the intermittent pH 3.5 had smaller shoots and roots with shorter and thicker stolons compared with constant pH 5.5. With the intermittent pH 4.0, plants were of similar size, but stolons were shorter and slightly thickener compared with those from pH 5.5. Mineral composition of leaf tissues at harvest was similar for the three pH treatments. These results indicate that regulation of solution pH could be a useful technique for inducing tuberization in potatoes.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19950701835
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Spectral quality may be used to alter plant disease development in CELSS

1994

A.C. Schuerger,C.S. Brown

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Plants were grown under light emitting diode (LED) arrays with different spectral qualities to determine the effects of light on the development of tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) in peppers and powdery mildew on cucumbers. One LED array supplied 100% of the photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) at 660 nm, a second array supplied 90% of the PPF at 660 nm and 10% at 735 nm, and a third array supplied 98% of the PPF at 660 nm with 2% in the blue region (380-500 nm) supplied by blue fluorescent lamps. Control plants were grown under metal halide (MH) lamps. Pepper plants inoculated with ToMV and grown under 660 and 660/735 LED arrays showed marked increases in both the rate and the severity of symptoms as compared to inoculated plants grown under the MH lamp or 660/blue array. Pepper plants grown under the 660/blue array did not develop symptoms as rapidly as inoculated plants grown under the 660 or 660/735 arrays, but they did develop symptoms faster than inoculated plants grown under the MH lamp. The numbers of colonies of powdery mildew per leaf and the size of each colony were greatest on inoculated cucumber plants grown under the MH lamp.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90327-1 pubmed: 11540212 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903271
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Light emitting diodes as a plant lighting source

1994

R.J. Bula, D.J. Tennessen, R.C. Morrow, T.W. Tibbitts

publication: NASA Conference …

Partial Abstract

Electroluminescence in solid materials is defined as the generation of light by the passage of an electric current through a body of solid material under an applied electric field. A specific type of electroluminescence, first noted by Lossew in 1923, involves the generation of photons when electrons are passed through a pn junction of certain solid materials (junction of a n-type semiconductor, an electron donor, and a p-type semiconductor, an electron acceptor)(cited in Bergh and Dean, 1976). Development efforts to translate these ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=rcIhAQAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA255&dq=Light+emitting+diodes...
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Lunar bioregenerative life support modeling

1994

A.E. Drysdale

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

The computer model described previously [1] has been used for Lunar bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) modeling. Critical factors include the supply scenario (closure, consumables, and spares), startup scenarios, energy cost, mission duration, and policy on allowable dumping of trash. A BLSS will support closure of all life support functions. However, startup may require some time before all support is available. Under some scenarios, closure of water is achieved at about one month, oxygen/carbon dioxide closure at two months, and food closure at three months after the first harvest of food staples. Mineral closure is less critical due to the lower masses involved, particularly of micronutrients, and may not be closed until large numbers of people are to be supported for long periods of time. Alternative startup scenarios include physico-chemical support during startup, remote startup, provision of commodities by supply during startup, and ramp-up of base manning. Remote startup is the most technically challenging, and would require a trade study between the increased automation and provision of physico-chemical regeneration equipment. Supply-based startup is the simplest option, but will be more massive than physico-chemical based startup. Ramp-up of base manning is an interesting case, but a subset of other options. An interesting startup scenario is the initial use of physicochemical (PC) regeneration, with a transition to bioregenerative life support as the CELSS becomes capable of closing each loop. PC technology would be available from shorter, precursor, missions. Stored consumables would be used for contingency and minimal buffering. The physicochemical system could be retained as additional contingency capability. A number of bioregenerative scenarios have been modeled, addressing cost-effectiveness over 10 years and system startup constraints.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44614941
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Solid matrix and liquid culture procedures for growth of potatoes

1994

T.W. Tibbitts,W. Cao

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

This report discusses the advantages and limitations of several different procedures for growth of potatoes for CELSS. Solution culture, in which roots and stolons are submerged, and aeroponic culture were not found useful for potatoes because stolons did not produce tubers unless a severe stress was applied to the plants. In detailed comparison studies, three selected culture systems were compared, nutrient film technique (NFT), NFT with shallow media, and pot culture with deep media. For the NFT and NFT plus shallow media, plants were grown in 0.3 m2 trays and for the deep medium culture, in 20 liter pots. A 1 cm depth of arcillite, a baked montmorillonite clay, was used as shallow media (NFT-arc). Peat-vermiculite mixture was used to fill the pots for the deep media. Nutrient solution, modified half-strength Hoagland's, was recirculated among the tray culture plants with pH automatically controlled at 5.5, and conductivity maintained at approximately 1100 microS cm-1 by adding stock nutrients or renewing the solution. A separate nutrient solution was used to water the pot plants four times daily to excess and the excess was discarded. Plants of Norland cv. were utilized and transplanted from sterile-propagated stem cutting plantlets. The plants were grown for 66 days under 12 h photoperiod in a first study and grown for 54 days under 24 h photoperiod in a second study. Under both photoperiods, total plant growth was greater in NFT-arc than in either NFT or pot culture. Under 12 h photoperiod, tuber dry weight was 30% higher with NFT-arc, but 50% lower with NFT, than with pot culture. Under 24 h photoperiod, however, tuber dry weight in both NFT and NFT-arc was only 20% of that in pot culture. The NFT and NFT-arc produced a greater shoot growth and larger number of small tubers than pot culture, especially with 24 h photoperiod. It is concluded that there are serious limitations to the use of NFT alone for growth of potatoes in a CELSS system. These limitations can be minimized by using a modified NFT with a shallow layer of media, such as arcillite, yet additional work is needed to ensure high tuber production with this system under long photoperiods.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90332-8 pubmed: 11540216 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903328
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Bioregenerative life-support systems

1994

CA Mitchell

publication: The American journal of clinical nutrition

Abstract

Long-duration future habitation of space involving great distances from Earth and/or large crew sizes (eg, lunar outpost, Mars base) will require a controlled ecological life-support system (CELSS) to simultaneously revitalize atmosphere (liberate oxygen and fix carbon dioxide), purify water (via transpiration), and generate human food (for a vegetarian diet). Photosynthetic higher plants and algae will provide the essential functions of biomass productivity in a CELSS, and a combination of physicochemical and bioregenerative processes will be used to regenerate renewable resources from waste materials. Crop selection criteria for a CELSS include nutritional use characteristics as well as horticultural characteristics. Cereals, legumes, and oilseed crops are used to provide the major macronutrients for the CELSS diet. A National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Specialized Center of Research and Training (NSCORT) was established at Purdue University to establish proof of the concept of the sustainability of a CELSS. The Biosphere 2 project in Arizona is providing a model for predicted and unpredicted situations that arise as a result of closure in a complex natural ecosystem.
doi: 10.1093/ajcn/60.5.820S pubmed: 7942592 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002916523185297
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Instrumentation for plant health and growth

1994

KJ Schlager

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Comprehensive spectroscopic monitoring of plant health and growth in bioregenerative life support system environments is possible using a variety of spectrometric technologies. Absorption spectrometry and atomic emission spectrometry in combination allow for direct, on-line, reagentless monitoring of plant nutrients from nitrate and potassium to micronutrients such as copper and zinc. Fluorometric spectrometry is ideal for the on-line detection, identification and quantification of bacteria and fungi.
Liquid Atomic Emission Spectrometry (LAES) is a new form of spectrometry that allows for direct measurement of atomic emission spectra in liquids. An electric arc is generated by a pair of electrodes in the liquid to provide the energy necessary to break molecular bonds and reduce the substance to atomic form. With a fiber probe attached to the electrodes, spectral light can be transmitted to a photodiode array spectrometer for light dispersion and analysis.
Ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectrometry is a long-established technology, but applications typically have required specific reagents to produce an analyte-specific absorption. Nitrate and iron nutrients have native UV absorption spectra that have been used to accurately determine nutrient concentrations at the ± 5% level.
Fluorescence detection and characterization of microbes is based upon the native fluorescent signatures of most microbiological species. Spectral and time-resolved fluorometers operating with remote fiber-optic probes will be used for on-line microbial monitoring in plant nutrient streams.

link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903026
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Phasic temperature change patterns affect growth and tuberization in potatoes

1994

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

This study determined the response of potato (Solanum tuberosum L., cv. Norland) plants to various patterns of air temperature changes over different growth periods. In each of two experiments under controlled environments, eight treatments of temperature changes were carried out in two growth rooms maintained at 17 and 22 C and a constant vapor pressure deficit of 0.60 kPa and 14-hour photoperiod. Plants were grown for 63 days after transplanting of tissue culture plantlets in 20-liter pots containing peat-vermiculite mix. Temperature changes were imposed on days 21 and 42, which were essentially at the beginning of tuber initiation and tuber enlargement, respectively, for this cultivar. Plants were moved between two temperature rooms to obtain eight temperature change patterns: 17-17-17, 17-17-22, 17-22-17, 22-17-17, 17-22-22, 22-17-22, 22-22-17, and 22-22-22C over three 21-day growth periods. At harvest on day 63, total plant dry weight was higher for the treatments beginning with 22 C than for those beginning with 17C, with highest biomass obtained at 22-22-17 and 22-17-17C. Shoot dry weight increased with temperature increased from 17-17-17 to 22-22-22C during the three growth periods. Tuber dry weight was highest with 22-17-17C, and lowest with 17-17-22 and 17-22-22C. With 22-17-17C, both dry weights of stolons and roots were lowest. Total tuber number and number of small tubers were highest with 17-17-17 and 17-17-22C, and lowest with 17-22-22 and 22-22-22C, whereas number of medium tubers was highest with 22-17-22C, and number of large tubers was highest with 22-17-17C. This study indicates that tuber development of potatoes is optimized with a phasic pattern of high temperature during early growth and low temperature during later growth.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.119.4.775 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/241949563_Phasic_Temperature_C...
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CO2 crop growth enhancement and toxicity in wheat and rice

1994

B. Bugbee,B. Spanarkel,S. Johnson,O. Monje,G. Koerner

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The effects of elevated CO2 on plant growth are reviewed and the implications for crop yields in regenerative systems are discussed. There is considerable theoretical and experimental evidence indicating that the beneficial effects of CO2 are saturated at about 0.12% CO2 in air. However, CO2 can easily rise above 1% of the total gas in a closed system, and we have thus studied continuous exposure to CO2 levels as high as 2%. Elevating CO2 from 340 to 1200 micromoles mol-1 can increase the seed yield of wheat and rice by 30 to 40%; unfortunately, further CO2 elevation to 2500 micromoles mol-1 (0.25%) has consistently reduced yield by 25% compared to plants grown at 1200 micromoles mol-1; fortunately, there was only an additional 10% decrease in yield as the CO2 level was further elevated to 2% (20,000 micromoles mol-1). Yield increases in both rice and wheat were primarily the result of increased number of heads per m2, with minor effects on seed number per head and seed size. Yield increases were greatest in the highest photosynthetic photon flux. We used photosynthetic gas exchange to analyze CO2 effects on radiation interception, canopy quantum yield, and canopy carbon use efficiency. We were surprised to find that radiation interception during early growth was not improved by elevated CO2. As expected, CO2 increased quantum yield, but there was also a small increase in carbon use efficiency. Super-optimal CO2 levels did not reduce vegetative growth, but decreased seed set and thus yield. The reduced seed set is not visually apparent until final yield is measured. The physiological mechanism underlying CO2 toxicity is not yet known, but elevated CO2 levels (0.1 to 1% CO2) increase ethylene synthesis in some plants and ethylene is a potent inhibitor of seed set in wheat.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(94)90306-9 pubmed: 11540191 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117794903069
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Foliage removal influences sweetpotato biomass yields in hydroponic culture

1995

P.P. David,A.A. Trotman,D.G. Mortley,C.K. Bonsi,P.A. Loretan,W.A. Hill

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Greenhouse studies were conducted to determine the effect of harvesting sweet potato foliage tips (terminal 15 cm) on storage root yield, edible biomass index (EBI), and linear growth rate. Plants were grown hydroponically from 15-cm vine cuttings planted in 0.15 × 0.15 × 1.2-m growth channels using a recirculating nutrient film technique system. Nutrients were supplied from a modified half-strength Hoagland solution with a 1 N:2.4 K ratio. Foliage tips were removed at 14-day intervals beginning 42 days after transplanting. Final harvest was at 120 days after planting. At the end of the growing season, harvested foliage tips totalled 225 g FW/plant. Foliage removal significantly reduced storage root yield, shoot biomass, and linear growth rate expressed on a canopy cover basis. The EBI was higher for plants with foliage removed than for the control.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19950712109
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Development of a siphon system with porous tubes for maintaining a constant negative water pressure in a rooting matrix

1995

T.W. Tibbitts, W. Cao, T. Frank

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

TIBBTTS TW, CAO W. and FRANK T. Development of a siphon system with porous tubes for maintaining a constant negative water pressure in a rooting matrix. BIOTRONICS 24, 7-14, 1995. A reliable and effective water and nutrient delivery system with porous tubes has been developed for growing plants at a controllable, constant, negative water pressure. Multiple porous stainless steel tubes were positioned 4cm apart in a shallow tray (44 cm long, 32 cm wide and 8cm deep), and then covered with a 4cm layer of fine medium (s:: 1mm in ...
link: https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ja/recordID/8203/?repository=yes
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Antinutritional factors in sweetpotato greens

1995

Aurea M. Almazan

publication: Journal of food composition and analysis

Abstract

Although sweetpotato leaves are consumed as a green vegetable in several Asian and some African countries, information on their antinutritional factors is very limited. Thus, oxalic, phytic, and tannic acids and trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor contents in the leaves of three sweetpotato varieties, Jewel, Georgia Jet, and TU-82-155 were determined. Varietal differences in oxalic, phytic, and tannic acid concentrations were noted. Conventional and microwave blanching in boling water decreased their concentration but blanching time did not affect the amount reduced. Trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors were not detected even in the fresh leaves.
doi: 10.1006/jfca.1995.1031 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889157585710319
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Root-shoot interaction in the greening of wheat seedlings grown under red light

1995

B. C. Tripathy,C. S. Brown

publication: Plant Physiology

Abstract

Wheat seedlings grown with roots exposed to constant red light (300–500 [mu]mol m-2 s-1) did not accumulate chlorophyll in the leaves. In contrast, seedlings grown with their roots shielded from light accumulated chlorophylls. Chlorophyll biosynthesis could be induced in red-light-grown chlorophyll-deficient yellow plants by either reducing the red-light intensity at the root surface to 100 [mu]mol m-2 s-1 or supplementing with 6% blue light. The inhibition of chlorophyll biosynthesis was due to impairment of the Mg-chelatase enzyme working at the origin of the Mg-tetrapyrrole pathway. The root-perceived photomorphogenic inhibition of shoot greening demonstrates root-shoot interaction in the greening process.
doi: 10.1104/pp.107.2.407 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/107/2/407/6068993
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Split-root nutrition of sweetpotato in hydroponic systems

1995

M.A. Sheriff, P.A. Loretan, A.A. Trotman, D.G. Mortley, J.Y. Lu, L.C. Garner

publication: International Symposium on Growing Media & Plant Nutrition in Horticulture

Abstract

Nutrient film technique (NFT) and deep water culture (DWC) hydroponic systems were used in a split-root study of the effect of four treatments on sweetpotato yield, the translocation of assimilates, and microbial population count. ‘TU-155’ cuttings (15 cm) were prerooted for 30 days in sand using deionized water and a modified half-Hoagland (MHH) solution. After 30 days, the plants were removed, and the roots of each were cleaned and split evenly between two sides of a channel (each 15 cm deep by 15 cm wide by 1.2 m long), four plants per channel. Replicated treatments were: MHH/MHH; MHH/Air, MHH/deionized water (DIW); and monovalent/divalent anions and cations (Mono/Dival). The entire experiment was repeated. Plants were harvested after growing for 120 days in a glasshouse. Storage roots, when produced, were similar in nutritive components. However, no storage roots were produced in Air or Mono channels and only a few in DIW suggesting inhibition of assimilate translocation. Fresh and dry weights for storage roots and foliage were highest in MHH/MHH in both NFT and DWC in both experiments. Solution samples were collected at 14-day intervals for microbial population profiling. Microbial counts (4.20–7.49 log cfu/ml) were highest in Dival channels. The counts indicated that solution composition influenced population size, and they were relatively high in both systems.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1995.401.14 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/401/401_14.htm
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Gas revitalization by microalgae

1995

A. Miya, T. Adachi, R. Tazawa, S. Suzuki, R. Kanki, M. Toyobe, M. Ocuchi

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Control and monitoring of environmental parameters in the ASTROCUOTURE flight experiment

1995

N.A. Duffie, W. Zhou, R.C. Morrow, R.J. Bula, T.W. Tibbitts, S.R. Wranovsky, P.D. Macaulay

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The ASTROCULTURE™ (ASC) middeck flight experiment series was developed to test and integrate subsystems required to grow plants in reduced gravity, with the goal of developing a plant growth unit suitable for conducting quality biological research in microgravity. Flights on the Space Shuttle have demonstrated control of water movement through a particulate rooting material, growth chamber temperature and humidity control, LED lighting systems and control, recycling of recovered condensate, ethylene scrubbing, and carbon dioxide control. A complete plant growth unit was tested on STS-63 in February 1995, the first ASC flight in which plant biology experiments were conducted in microgravity.
The methods and objectives used for control of environmental conditions in the ASC unit are described in this paper. These include aerial zone air humidity control, temperature control, light intensity control, carbon dioxide level control, and hydrocarbon scrubbing, as well as root zone water and nutrient delivery control. The capability of the ASC unit for output and downlinking of video images from its two plant growth chambers is also described, along with its capabilities for remote data downlinking and command uplinking from the ground operation facilities.

doi: 10.4271/951627 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/951627/
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[citation] The Antarctic horticultural project

1995

P. Sadler

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Utilization of higher plants in bioregenerative life support systems

1995

M. Kiyota, A. Tani, K. Murakami, T. Hirano, I. Aiga

publication: unknown
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku1989.7.2_27
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On the use of antibiotics to reduce rhizoplane microbial populations in root physiology and ecology investigations

1995

David R. Smart,Ari Ferro,Karl Ritchie,Bruce G. Bugbee

publication: Physiologia plantarum

Abstract

No straightforward method exists for separating the proportion of ion exchange and respiration due to rhizoplane microbial organisms from that of root ion exchange and respiration. We examined several antibiotics that might be used for the temporary elimination of rhizoplane bacteria from hydroponically grown wheat roots (Triticum aestivum cv. Veery 10). Each antibiotic was tested for herbicidal activity and plate counts were used to enumerate bacteria and evaluate antibiotic kinetics. Only lactam antibiotics (penicillins and cephalosporins) did not reduce wheat growth rates. Aminoglycosides, the pyrimidine trimethoprim, colistin and rifampicin reduced growth rates substantially. Antibiotics acted slowly, with maximum reductions in rhizoplane bacteria occurring after more than 48 h of exposure. Combinations of nonphytotoxic antibiotics reduced platable rhizoplane bacteria by as much as 98%; however, this was generally a reduction from about 10(9) to 10(6) colony forming units per gram of dry root mass, so that many viable bacteria remained on root surfaces. We present evidence which suggests that insufficient bacterial biomass exists on root surfaces of nonstressed plants grown under well-aerated conditions to quantitatively interfere with root nitrogen absorption measurements.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1995.tb05519.x pubmed: 11540615 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1995.tb05519.x
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Plant response in the ASTROCULTURE flight experiment unit

1995

Robert C. Morrow,Neil A. Duffie,Theodore W. Tibbitts,Raymond J. Bula,Daniel J. Barta,Douglas W. Ming,Raymond M. Wheeler,D. Marshall Porterfield

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The ASTROCULTURE™ flight unit flown as part of the SPACEHAB-03 mission on STS-63 was a complete plant growth system providing plant lighting, temperature control, humidity control, water and nutrient delivery, a CO2 control system, nutrient control using the NASA Zeoponics system, an ethylene photocatalysis unit, a control and data acquisition system, and plant video. The objective of the ASTROCULTURE™-4 experiment was to continue technological assessment of these environmental control subsystems. Plants were included in this package for the first time. Two plant species were flown, rapid cycling ‘Wisconsin Fast Plants’ (Brassica rapa), and dwarf wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. ‘Super Dwarf’). Growth and development of both plant species on orbit appeared normal and similar to that of plants grown under terrestrial conditions.
doi: 10.4271/951624 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/951624/
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Growing super-dwarf wheat in Svet on Mir

1995

F B Salisbury, G E Bingham, W F Campbell, J G Carman, D L Bubenheim, B Yendler, G Jahns

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

In cooperation with Russian colleagues, we will carry out three experiments with a super-dwarf cultivar of wheat in the plant growth chamber Svet on the Russian Space Station Mir: an early test of the root module and other instruments (July–August, 1995), a seed-to-seed experiment (1996), and a third planting that will be harvested after about 35 days, frozen, and returned to Earth for chemical analysis (1996). Plants will be photographed, sampled, and chemically fixed at intervals during the first two plantings. Instrumentation has been constructed to measure C02, water vapor, air temperatures, infrared leaf temperatures, oxygen, pressure, irradiance levels, and moisture in the root module substrate (Balkanine). The primary objective of this equipment is to allow controllers to eliminate plant environmental stresses, leading to vigorous plant growth in microgravity. We are testing sampling and analysis techniques and growing plants in ground versions of Svet in Moscow and in Svet mockups in Utah: 12 chambers in two temperature-controlled rooms, with two compartments in each chamber (two temperatures, four C02 concentrations, and three photoperiods in a current experiment).
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1995/00000002/00000001/art00004
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Design of a low atmospheric pressure plant growth chamber

1995

Steven H. Schwartzkopf,James R. Grote,Timothy L. Stroup

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Little information exists on the responses of plants to environmental conditions which combine lower than Earth-normal atmospheric pressures with changes in the partial pressures of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. Data collected on the growth of plants in such environments will be valuable in the development of low-pressure plant growth facilities for use on Space Station Freedom, the moon, and Mars. Such low pressure environments have been proposed previously as a means of facilitating EVA operations. Additionally, in some planetary base applications, the use of low atmospheric pressure would allow the use of lightweight plant growth structures for food production, thus reducing both the mass and the launch cost of the life support system.
doi: 10.4271/951709 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/951709/
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The effect of resource cost on life support selection

1995

Alan E. Drysdale

publication: unknown

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Engineering design analysis of a microgravity chamber with expandable boundaries for root crops

1995

H. Aglan,E. Smith,R. Tshitahe,D. Mortley,P. Loretan,W. Hill,R. Prince

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

A closed nutrient delivery chamber with expandable boundaries has been developed to support the growth of root crops, with potential applications in microgravity. The chamber is completely enclosed, separating the root zone from the foliage zone with a padded sealant through which the plant stem passes. The expandable boundary chamber (EBC) allows for expansion of the root zone volume, through longitudal pleats, as the plant grows. Two units have been evaluated with a trial crop of sweetpotato (Tuskegee Univ. breeding clone TU-82-155) for 120 days in a greenhouse environment. Storage root yield per plant in the EBC averaged 1.33 kg in comparison to 0.3 kg for the conventional Nutirent Film Technique (NFT) grown plants. This excellent yield warrants further design refinement and serious consideration of the system for earth use and microgravity applications.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44612035
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Development and Integration of a Breadboard-scale aerobic bioreactor to regenerate nutrients from inedible crop residues

1995

Barry W. Finger,Michael P. Alazraki

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

A Breadboard-Scale Aerobic Bioreactor (B-SAB) has been designed and integrated with the Kennedy Space Center's Biomass Production Chamber (BPC). The bioreactor utilizes a mixed microbial community to biodegrade inedible plant residues, a component of a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) waste-stream. The continuously stirred tank reactor (120 L working volume) supports nutrient recycling and secondary food production experiments, and can process an influent with a solids loading as high as 50 g L⁻¹. The volumetric oxygen mass transfer coefficient, kLa, is 0.013s⁻¹. Nutrient solution for BPC lettuce and wheat crops has been produced. Currently, B-SAB is supplying 80% of the nutrients for 10 m² of potato plants in a continuous production experiment.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44611960
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Microporous membrane nutrient delivery systems for sweetpotato in microgravity

1995

H. Aglan,R. Tshitahe,C. Morris,D. Mortley,P. Loretan,W. Hill,R. Prince

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

Long-term manned space missions will require life support processes including food production. Porous plate and tube membrane systems have been identified to have potential for crop production in a microgravity environment. Of several systems tested, a stainless steel plate membrane system with a porous medium underneath has proven to be superior in terms of the uniformity of nutrient solution distribution. Several trials with sweetpotatoes, showed successful plant growth, with reduced foliage and storage root yield as compared to the nutrient film technique (NFT). These results can be attributed to reduced nutrient solution availability compared to NFT. It is expected that design improvements can increase sweetpotato yield.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44612034
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Analysis of genetic diversity in a sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas) germplasm collection using DNA amplification fingerprinting

1995

Guohao He,C. S. Prakash,R. L. Jarret

publication: Genome

Abstract

A DNA amplification fingerprinting (DAF) approach was employed to develop individual-specific profiles and analyze genetic relationships among 73 plant introductions of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) including unadapted lines from around the world and a few selected U.S.A. cultivars. Reliable and informative fingerprint profiles were obtained employing single octamer primers and Stoffel fragment Taq polymerase in the polymerase chain reaction, polyacrylamide-based vinyl polymer for electrophoresis, and silver staining to visualize the DNA. Using seven highly informative octamer primers, individual-specific DAF profiles were obtained for all accessions tested. The degree of polymorphism in the sweetpotato collection was very large, indicating a high level of genetic variability. Several accessions clustered together based on their geographic source. Most U.S.A. cultivars formed a separate cluster in the phenogram, while accessions from Papua New Guinea exhibited the highest genetic diversity. The wild species I. triloba and tetraploid I. batatas formed a group distinct from the cultivated sweetpotato. DAF appears to be useful in sweetpotato germplasm characterization and may be employed to identify duplicate accessions or for creation of core subsets. DAF data may also be useful for facilitating the selection of parents for a breeding program to ensure a broad genetic base.
doi: 10.1139/g95-123 pubmed: 8537002 link: https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/g95-123
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Space habitat options and advanced life support design constraints

1995

Alan Drysdale

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

This paper addresses a number of construction types and the implications of advanced life support (ALS) system constraints. Space habitats have a number of requirements in common, but are heavily driven by the mission, in particular by the operational environment. Delivery or local manufacturing constraints must also be considered. Life support is one of the primary functions of a habitat, and will be one of the major drivers of the habitat design. Life support will involve a significant commitment of mass, energy (and so heat rejection), and manpower. Different options for life support will require different amounts of these resources. To compare scenarios, equivalent mass (the mass cost of each resource) is used.
doi: 10.4271/951690 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/951690/
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Total dietary fiber content of some green and root vegetables obtained at different ethanol concentrations

1995

Aurea M. Almazan,Xiaohua Zhou

publication: Food chemistry

Abstract

The effect of reducing ethanol concentration for the precipitation of soluble dietary fibre in the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1990, 1992, Official Methods of Analysis) enzymatic-gravimetric method 985.29 for total dietary fibre (TDF) in food was investigated. Alcohol concentration was decreased from 76% to 41% and 56% in determining TDF of raw collard and mustard greens, sweet potato leaves and storage roots, and sugar beet leaves and roots. TDF contents of the vegetables at the reduced ethanol concentrations were generally not different from those at the AOAC recommended volume (P < 0.05). When there was a significant difference, the TDF means for the same vegetable varied within the range of the standard deviations. Reduction of ethanol volume can lower analysis cost, lessen environmental organic solvent contamination and shorten filtration time.
doi: 10.1016/0308-8146(95)90792-6 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0308814695907926
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Leaf emergence on potato stems in relation to thermal time

1995

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Agronomy Journal

Abstract

For simulation of foliar development of potato plants (Solanum tuberosum L.), it is necessary to quantify the responses of leaf emergence to major environmental factors. This study was conducted to determine the relationship of leaf emergence on potato stems to growing degreedays (GDD) under varied temperature patterns over different growth periods. In each of two duplicate experiments in controlled environments, potato plants were grown for 63 d after transplanting of tissue culture plantlets into 20-L pots containing peat-vermiculite mix. Four treatments were maintained, involving two constant temperatures of 17 and 22°C and two changed temperatures of 17-22-17 and 22-17-22°C over three 21-d periods under constant vapor pressure deficit of 0.60 kPa and photosynthetic photon flux density of 430 µmol m−2 s−1 for a 14-h photoperiod. The first period was the first 21 d of plant growth after transplanting, the second 21-d period coincided with plant enlargement and tuber initiation, and the third period coincided with tuber enlargement. Leaf numbers on main stems and uppermost apical branches were recorded every 2 to 3 d during the course of the experiments. This leaf number increased linearly with accumulated GDD over the whole experiment duration for each of the four treatments, whether the temperature was constant or changed. The phyllochron in GDD per leaf (6°C base temperature) was lowest at constant 17°C (19.2 GDD), highest at constant 22°C (22.8 GDD), and intermediate at the changed temperatures ( ≈21.3 GDD). Detailed analysis of the leaf emergence rates during each of the three 21-d periods indicates that the phyllochron at either 17 or 22°C was also slightly lower during the second 21-d period than during the first and third 21-d periods. The total leaf number increased with increasing total GDD among the treatments, primarily from varied leaf number on apical branches. The data suggest that a constant phyllochron for a given growth location and calendar time may provide sufficient accuracy for predicting leaf emergence on potato stems in the field environment.
doi: 10.2134/agronj1995.00021962008700030013x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj1995.00021962008700030013x
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Water recycling system for combined fish culture and plant production (Part 2). The operating plan of combined systems

1995

T. Saito, T. Shiga, S. Tojo, K. Watanabe, F. Ai, T. Ando, K. Suzuki

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A study on utilization of processed organic waste solution for plant cultivation in closed ecological systems

1995

Y. Tako, T. Saito, A. Tani, M. Terai, K. Nitta

publication: CELSS Journal.

Partial Abstract

A study on utilization of processed organic waste solution for plant cultivation in closed ecological systems-An experimental study on improvement of suitability of waste wet-oxidized solution for use as plant nutrient solution | CiNii Research A study on utilization of processed organic waste solution for plant cultivation in closed ecological systems-An experimental study on improvement of suitability of waste wet-oxidized solution for use as plant nutrient solution ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1572543025051387648
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[citation] Plant hydroponics in Antarctica

1995

P. Sadler

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Living in space: Results from Biospheres 2’s initial closure, an early testbed for closed ecological systems on Mars

1995

M. Nelson, W.F. Dempster

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The following summary of results from the first 2-year closure experiment (September 26, 1991 to September 26, 1993) in Biosphere 2 is excerpted from a chapter written by William Dempster and myself for a book, Strategies for Mars, edited by Carol Stoker and Carter Emmart of NASA Ames Research Center. The book will be published later this year by Krieger Publishers. It brings together a number of the most striking initial results, including food production and nutrition; ecosystem changes; oxygen and carbon dioxide dynamics; and the human role and response to living in a small, recycling life support system. The references cited are useful as a guide to currently available articles in journals. Hopefully, the next year will see a proliferation of papers presenting more data from the first 2 years of Biosphere 2's operation. There was a wealth of data collected during the closure and by teams of researchers who had access to the facility during the 5-month transition period following the departure of the first crew and the commencement of the second closure experiment in March, 1994.
pubmed: 11538313 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark-Nelson-9/publication/11808760_Living_in_space_Results_f...
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Study on high quality plant production systems. I. Changes in ascorbic acid content under spectral quality of light, cultivating method, and season

1995

T. Shiga, S. Hagiwara, N. Kuroda, A. Kenmoku, T. Saito, K. Otsubo

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Effect of crop development on biogenic emissions from plant populations grown in a closed plant growth chambers

1995

J.H. Batten, G.W. Stutte, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Phytochemistry

Abstract

The Biomass Production Chamber at John F. Kennedy Space Center is a closed plant growth chamber facility that can be used to monitor the level of biogenic emissions from large populations of plants throughout their entire growth cycle. The head space atmosphere of a 26-day-old lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. Waldmann's Green) stand was repeatedly sampled and emissions identified and quantified using GC-mass spectrometry. Concentrations of dimethyl sulphide, carbon disulphide, alpha-pinene, furan and 2-methylfuran were not significantly different throughout the day; whereas, isoprene showed significant differences in concentration between samples collected in light and dark periods. Volatile organic compounds from the atmosphere of wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Yecora Rojo) were analysed and quantified from planting to maturity. Volatile plant-derived compounds included 1-butanol, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, nonanal, benzaldehyde, tetramethylurea, tetramethylthiourea, 2-methylfuran and 3-methylfuran. Concentrations of volatiles were determined during seedling establishment, vegetative growth, anthesis, grain fill and senescence and found to vary depending on the developmental stage. Atmospheric concentrations of benzaldehyde and nonanal were highest during anthesis, 2-methylfuran and 3-methylfuran concentrations were greatest during grain fill, and the concentration of the tetramethylurea peaked during senescence.
doi: 10.1016/0031-9422(95)00126-r pubmed: 7669278 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/003194229500126R
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System issues for controlled ecological life support systems

1995

J.N. Eisenberg, C.W. Pawlowski, D.R. Maszle, D.M. Auslander

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

There are several characteristics of a Controlled Ecological Life Support System that are distinct from commonly engineered systems. These are: 1) the uncertainty, due to limited data availability, and variability due to the heterogeneity of biological subsystems; 2) the closed, ecological nature of the system; and 3) the primary criterion of maximizing the probability of survival. Consequences of these features include: complex dynamics characterized by time scales ranging from milliseconds to months, posing difficult problems with respect to mathematical modeling and predictability; and the necessity for a unique controller design that can translate the high level requirement of survivability to low-level actuator tasks. Future research in the systems and control area should include an ecological perspective focusing on the unique dynamical characteristics of a Controlled Ecological Life Support System.
pubmed: 11538586 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1995/00000001/F0020003/art00008
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Dynamic simulation of the laboratory-scale controlled ecological life support system

1995

C.K. Finn, V. Srinivasan

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

There are a number of design and control issues that need to be resolved in order to make a crop growth chamber an integral part of a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) capable of supporting life on extended space missions. A modeling and simulation effort, along with the construction of an experimental testbed, are underway at NASA Ames Research Center to explore the long-term dynamic behavior of closed-loop life support systems. One problem that has been isolated for investigation is the stability and robustness of closed-loop systems over extended periods of time. Currently a crop growth chamber is being integrated with a solid waste processor to study closure of the carbon loop. A dynamic simulation model of the system was developed to evaluate system design options and operational alternatives. The model was also used to simulate the impact of system buffer size on the dynamic behavior of conditions inside the crop growth chamber.
pubmed: 11538310 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1995/00000002/00000002/art00002
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Accumulation of possible potato tuber-inducing factor in continuous use recirculating NFT systems

1995

R.M. Wheeler, G.W. Stutte, C.L. Mackowiak, N.C. Yorio, L.M. Ruffe

publication: …

Partial Abstract

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) have been grown successfully with a recirculating nutrient film technique (NFT) when a fresh nutrient solution is used for each planting. During the past year, we conducted two studies in which the same nutrient solution was used for successive plantings (EC and pH were maintained at 0.12 S· m–1 and 5.8). Results showed that successive plantings became prematurely induced (tubers initiating near 20 days after planting–DAP), causing stunted shoot growth and reduced yields per plant. When “old” ...
link: https://journals.ashs.org/downloadpdf/journals/hortsci/30/4/article-p790B.pdf
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A controlled aquatic ecological life support system (CAELSS) for combined production of fish and higher plant biomass suitable for integration into a lunar or planetary base

1995

V. Blüm,M. Andriske,H. Eichhorn,K. Kreuzberg,M.P. Schreibman

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

Based on the construction principle of the already operative Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) the concept of an aquaculture system for combined production of animal and plant biomass was developed. It consists of a tank for intensive fish culture which is equipped with a feeding lock representing also a trap for biomass removal followed by a water recycling system. This is an optimized version of the original C.E.B.A.S. filters adapted to higher water pollutions. It operates in a fully biological mode and is able to convert the high ammonia ion concentrations excreted by the fish gills into nitrite ions. The second biomass production site is a higher plant cultivator with an internal fiber optics light distributor which may utilize of solar energy. The selected water plant is a tropical rootless duckweed of the genus Wolffia which possesses a high capacity in nitrate elimination and is terrestrially cultured as a vegetable for human nutrition in Southeast Asia. It is produced in an improved suspension culture which allows the removal of excess biomass by tangential centrifugation. The plant cultivator is able to supply the whole system with oxygen for respiration and eliminates vice versa the carbon dioxide exhaled by the fish via photosynthesis. A gas exchanger may be used for emergency purposes or to deliver excess oxygen into the environment and may be implemented into the air regeneration system of a closed environment of higher order. The plant biomass is fed into a biomass processor which delivers condensed fresh and dried biomass as pellets. The recovered water is fed back into the aquaculture loop. The fresh plants can be used for human nutrition immediately or can be stored after sterilization in an adequate packing. The dried Wolffia pellets are collected and brought into the fish tank by an automated feeder. In parallel the water from the plant cultivator is driven back to the animal tank by a pump. The special feature of the system described is, however, the used fish species. It is the herbivorous teleost Ctenopharyngodon idellus (Chinese Grass Carp) which can be raised solely with plant biomass. In this case, moreover, it can be useful for the bioregeneration of plant biomass inedible for humans which can be used easily as additional food for the fishes thus resulting in an intensivation of animal protein production. The resupply of removed fish biomass has to be guaranteed by a separate hatchery.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(95)00054-4 pubmed: 11541106 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0094576595000544
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Effect of O2 pressure under low air pressure on net photosynthetic rate of spinach

1995

K. Iwabuchi, E. Goto, T. Takakura

publication: Greenhouse Environment Control and Automation

Abstract

The effect of O2 partial pressure under low total air pressure on photosynthesis was examined to find suitable gas conditions for a plant production system on a lunar base or a space station. Net photosynthetic and transpiration rates of spinach plants grown in atmospheric conditions were measured under total pressures of 20, 50 and 101 kPa and O2 partial pressures of 3 and 20 kPa at constant CO2 partial pressure.
The net photosynthetic rate was higher at 3 kPa O2 partial pressure than at 20 kPa O2 partial pressure in any total pressure. At 20 kPa O2 partial pressure, the net photosynthetic rate increased remarkably as the total air pressure decreased, but the rate at 3 kPa O2 was not influenced by total air pressure in the present experimental conditions. The results indicated that diffusion coefficients of O2 and CO2 increased as total pressure decreased, and affected both photosynthesis and photorespiration.
The transpiration rate increased as total pressure decreased at both 20 kPa and 3 kPa of O2 partial pressure. But, the increase in transpiration rate was not large compared to the increase in photosynthetic rate.

doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1995.399.9 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/399/399_9.htm
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Growth and photomorphogenesis of pepper plants grown under red light-emitting diodes supplemented with blue or far-red illumination

1995

C.S. Brown, A.C. Schuerger, J.C. Sager

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a potential irradiation source for intensive plant culture systems and photobiological research. They have small size, low mass, a long functional life, and narrow spectral output. In this study, we measured the growth and dry matter partitioning of 'Hungarian Wax' pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) plants grown under red LEDs compared with similar plants grown under red LEDs with supplemental blue or far-red radiation or under broad spectrum metal halide (MH) lamps. Additionally, we describe the thermal and spectral characteristics of these sources. The LEDs used in this study had a narrow bandwidth at half peak height (25 nm) and a focused maximum spectral output at 660 nm for the red and 735 nm for the far-red. Near infrared radiation (800 to 3000 nm) was below detection and thermal infrared radiation (3000 to 50,000 nm) was lower in the LEDs compared to the MH source. Although the red to far-red ratio varied considerably, the calculated phytochrome photostationary state (phi) was only slightly different between the radiation sources. Plant biomass was reduced when peppers were grown under red LEDs in the absence of blue wavelengths compared to plants grown under supplemental blue fluorescent lamps or MH lamps. The addition of far-red radiation resulted in taller plants with greater stem mass than red LEDs alone. There were fewer leaves under red or red plus far-red radiation than with lamps producing blue wavelengths. These results indicate that red LEDs may be suitable, in proper combination with other wavelengths of light, for the culture of plants in tightly controlled environments such as space-based plant culture systems.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.120.5.808 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christopher-Brown-90/publication/11806582_Growth_and_photomo...
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Analysis of plant harvest indices for bioregenerative life support systems

1995

Ajoy Velayudhan,Karen L. Kohlmann,Paul J. Westgate,Michael R. Ladisch

publication: Enzyme and microbial technology

Abstract

Harvest indices, which are measures of the ratio of edible to total plant weight, are redefined to include edible sugars derived from enzymatic hydrolysis of the cellulose content of inedible plant components. Compositional analysis and carbohydrate contents of rapeseed, rice, soybeans, cowpea, wheat, sweet potato, white potato, and lettuce were analyzed to develop such generalized harvest indices. Cellulose conversion is shown to extend considerably the food available from plants otherwise grown for their oil and protein content in a bioregenerative life support system.
doi: 10.1016/0141-0229(94)00121-7 pubmed: 11541096 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0141022994001217
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Effect of irradiance, sucrose, and CO2 concentration on the growth of potato (Solanum tuberosum) in vitro

1995

N.C. Yorio, R.M. Wheeler, R.C. Weigel

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Growth measurements were taken of potato plantlets (Solanum tuberosum L.) cvs. Norland (NL), Denali (DN), and Kennebec (KN), grown in vitro. Studies were conducted in a growth chamber, with nodal explants grown for 21 days on Murashige and Skoog salts with either 0, 1, 2, or 3% sucrose and capped with loose-fitted Magenta 2-way caps that allowed approximately 2.25 air exchanges/hour. Plantlets were exposed to either 100 or 300 micro mol/sq m/s photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), and the growth chamber was maintained at either 400 or 4000 micro mol/mol CO2. Regardless of PPF, all cvs. that were grown at 4000 micro mol/mol CO2 showed significant increases in total plantlet dry weight (TDW) and shoot length (SL) when sucrose was omitted from the media, indicating an autotrophic response. At 400 micro mol/mol CO2, all cvs. showed an increase in TDW and SL with increasing sucrose under both PPF levels. Within any sucrose treatment, the highest TDW for all cvs. resulted from 300 micro mol/sq m/s PPF and 4000 micro mol/mol CO2 At 4000 micro mol/mol CO2, TDW showed no further increase with sucrose levels above 1% for cvs. NL and DN at both PPF levels, suggesting that sucrose levels greater than 1% may hinder growth when CO2 enrichment is used.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19950022954
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Growth and nutrient uptake of wheat in clinoptilolite-phosphate rock substrates

1995

Earl R. Allen,Douglas W. Ming,Lloyd R. Hossner,Donald L. Henninger,Charlie Galindo

publication: Agronomy Journal

Abstract

Mixtures of zeolite and phosphate rock react to release cations and anions into soil solution through dissolution and ion exchange. These mixtures have the potential to serve as slow-release sources of nutrients in synthetic soils. The term zeoponics has been used to describe such systems. Research was conducted to monitor dry matter production and nutrient uptake of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in a zeoponic system containing phosphate rock and NH4- and K-saturated zeolite. The objective was to evaluate the ability of zeolite and phosphate rock to provide a balanced supply of N, P, K, and Ca for plant growth. Two zeolite samples (San Miguel and Wyoming clinoptilolite) and two phosphate rock samples (North Carolina and Tennessee phosphate rock) were combined factorially to form four zeoponic mixtures. A series of synthetic soils was formed by combining selected rates of each zeoponic mixture with acid-washed quartz sand. Zeoponic rates (ZR) were 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100% (v/v) of the synthetic soil. Pots were placed in a growth chamber after planting, and plants were harvested every 45 d for a 225-d period. Foliar spray supplied essential nutrients other than N, P, K, and Ca. High yields of wheat dry matter were produced through several cuttings when at least 25% of the synthetic soil was comprised of the zeoponic mixture and when the zeoponic mixture contained a highreactivity phosphate rock (North Carolina). Tissue analyses suggested that K, and to a lesser extent N, limited wheat growth when ZR ≤ 10%. Calcium limited wheat growth at ZR > 10% when a low-reactivity phosphate rock (Tennessee) was used, but not when a high-reactivity phosphate rock (North Carolina) was used. Properly formulated zeoponic mixtures of San Miguel or Wyoming clinoptilolite and North Carolina phosphate rock are capable of supplying sufficient levels of N, P, K, and Ca for intensive growth of wheat.
doi: 10.2134/agronj1995.00021962008700060004x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj1995.00021962008700060004x
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Bioregenerative life support system design

1995

Giulio Metelli,Elena Lampazzi,Riccardo Pagliarello,Marco Garegnani,Luca Nardi,Maurizio Calvitti,Luca Gugliermetti,Riccardo Restivo Alessi,Eugenio Benvenuto,Angiola Desiderio

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Photoperiod shift effects on yield characteristics of rice

1995

Gayle M. Volk,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Crop science

Abstract

Edible yield must be maximized for each crop species selected for inclusion in the Controlled Ecological Life-Support System (CELSS) proposed by NASA to support long-term manned space missions. In a greenhouse study aimed at increasing biomass partitioning to rice (Oryza sativa L.) grain, plants of the high yielding semi-dwarf rice cultivar Ai-Nan-Tsao were started in pots under 8-h photoperiods at a density of 212 plants m-2. After different periods of time under 8-h photoperiods, pots were switched to continuous light for the remainder of the cropping cycle. Continuous light did not delay time to first panicle emergence (60 d) or time to harvest (83 d). There was a positive correlation between the length of continuous light treatments and nongrain biomass. Grain yield (1.6 +/- 0.2 g plant-1) did not increase in continuous light. Yield-efficiency rate (grain weight per length of cropping cycle, canopy volume, and weight of nongrain shoot biomass) was used to compare treatments. Small Ai-Nan-Tsao rice canopies grown under 8-h photoperiods were more efficient producers of grain than canopies grown under continuous light for a portion of the rice cropping cycle.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1995.0011183x003500060019x pubmed: 11540306 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1995.0011183X003500060019x
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Application of plant growth models to estimate the gas and water balance in a crop production module

1995

E. Goto, T. Takakura

publication: CELSS J.

Partial Abstract

Application of plant growth models to estimate the gas and water balance in a crop production module | CiNii Research Application of plant growth models to estimate the gas and water balance in a crop production module ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1571980074883737344
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Constant-light injury of potato: temporal an spatial patterns of carbon dioxide assimilation, starch content, chloroplast integrity, and necrotic lesions

1995

Kent E. Cushman,Theodore W. Tibbitts,Thomas D. Sharkey,Robert R. Wise

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Zeoponic plant-growth substrates for space applications

1995

D.W. Ming, D.J. Barta, D.C. Golden, C. Galindo Jr, D.L. Henninger

publication: Natural …

Partial Abstract

A synthetic plant-growth substrate (zeoponic substrate) consisting of two mineral phases has been designed to release plant-essential elements slowly into" soil" solution. The substrate consists of clinoptilolite and either synthetic or natural apatite. Non-vernalized winter wheat was grown in clinoptilolite-apatite substrates for 90 d; the above-ground plant material was harvested at 45 d and 90 d after planting. Ca, Mg, P, and micronutrients were made available to the wheat by the dissolution of the apatite. K and NH ...
link: https://www.academia.edu/download/35985158/Golden_1993_Zeolites_in_Space_applications_Space93.pdf
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Interaction between exercising humans and growing plants in a closed ecological life support system

1995

D.F. Doerr,V.A. Convertino,J. Blue,R.M. Wheeler,W.M. Knott

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to quantify the gas exchange between plants growing in a Closed Environmental Life Support System (CELSS) and the metabolism of human subjects undergoing various levels of physical exercise, and subsequently determine the buffer characteristics in relation to the carbon exchange established for plants in this closed loop life support system. Two men (ages 42 and 45 yr) exercised on a cycle ergometer at three different work intensities, each on a separate day. The CELSS, a 113 m3 chamber, was sized to meet the needs of one human. The plants, consisting of 20 m2 of potato, provided oxygen to the human during an artificially lighted photosynthesis phase and the human provided CO2 to the plants. The average rates of exchange for the subjects were 0.88, 1.69, and 2.47 liters O2/min and 0.77, 1.47, and 2.21 liters CO2/min at approximately 25%, 50%, and 75% of their maximal aerobic capacity, respectively. The photosynthetic rate for the CELSS was 0.95 liters/min. A balance between human CO2 production and plant utilization was noted at approximately the 50% VO2max level. The oxygen balance and changes were not within detectable limits of the CELSS instrumentation for the durations of these exercise exposures. If a CELSS environment is the methodology selected for long term spaceflight, it will be important to select plants that efficiently grow at the available light and nutrient levels while balancing the needs for the human crew at their levels of physical activity.
doi: 10.1016/0094-5765(95)00148-4 pubmed: 11540994 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0094576595001484
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Characteristics and composition of peanut oil prepared by an aqueous extraction method

1995

L. Shi, J.Y. Lu, G. Jones, P.A. Loretan, W.A. Hill

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Peanut is one of the crops being tested for NASA’s Advanced Life Support (ALS) program for future long-duration human space missions. The ALS program is developing an integrated system for biomass (food, oxygen) production and resource recycling. Oil will be used mainly for cooking and its availability is important for food preparation. Peanut seeds contain 40–50% oil and hence are considered an excellent source of oil. In the ALS environment, a simple, compact, and energy-efficient system is needed. The feasibility of such a method, peanut oil preparation by water extraction, was investigated. The results indicated the important processing conditions to be: a peanut particle size of 0.02 cm or less, a pH of 4, simmering for 20 min plus churning at 65°C for a few hours, and a centrifugation at 6000 × gn to separate the oil. The oil recovery yield was about 80%. The saponification value, specific gravity, refractive index, and viscosity were similar to that of commercial peanut oil except the color was lighter for the water-extracted oil. Gas and thin-layer chromatographic analyses showed that fatty acid and lipid profiles were similar to the commercial peanut oil. The only difference observed was that the oil prepared by the aqueous method had lower linoleic and higher oleic acids than the commercial peanut oil. The oil prepared by this aqueous method appeared to be of high quality.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00015
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Plant regeneration of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L.) from leaf explants in vitro using a two-stage protocol

1995

A.Porobo Dessai,R.M. Gosukonda,E. Blay,C.Korsi Dumenyo,F. Medina-Bolivar,C.S. Prakash

publication: Scientia Horticulturae

Abstract

Leaf explants of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L. (Lam.)) were cultured on Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) with varying levels (0.2–1 mg l−1) of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D; stage I) and transferred to a medium with zeatin riboside (0.2–0.4 mg l−1; stage II). The highest frequency (over 80%) shoot regeneration occurred in the genotype PI 318846-3 cultured on MS + 2,4-D (0.2 mg l−1) for 3 days and then transferred to MS + zeatin riboside (0.2 mg l−1). Addition of zeatin riboside in the first medium reduced the frequency of shoot regeneration. Of the 27 genotypes, 19 exhibited high frequency shoot regeneration, and eight were completely recalcitrant. The developmental stage of the leaf was critical, as young leaves from the apical portions of the stem were the most regenerative. Regenerated shoots rooted readily and the plants transferred to soil in the greenhouse appeared normal.
doi: 10.1016/0304-4238(95)00767-N link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/030442389500767N
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The components of crop productivity: Measuring and modeling plant metabolism

1995

B. Bugbee

publication: ASGSB bulletin : publication of the American Society for Gravitational and Space Biology

Abstract

Several investigators in the CELSS program have demonstrated that crop plants can be remarkably productive in optimal environments where plants are limited only by incident radiation. Radiation use efficiencies of 0.4 to 0.7 g biomass per mol of incident photons have been measured for crops in several laboratories. Some early published values for radiation use efficiency (1 g mol-1) were inflated due to the effect of side lighting. Sealed chambers are the basic research module for crop studies for space. Such chambers allow the measurement of radiation and CO2 fluxes, thus providing values for three determinants of plant growth: radiation absorption, photosynthetic efficiency (quantum yield), and respiration efficiency (carbon use efficiency). Continuous measurement of each of these parameters over the plant life cycle has provided a blueprint for daily growth rates, and is the basis for modeling crop productivity based on component metabolic processes. Much of what has been interpreted as low photosynthetic efficiency is really the result of reduced leaf expansion and poor radiation absorption. Measurements and models of short-term (minutes to hours) and long-term (days to weeks) plant metabolic rates have enormously improved our understanding of plant environment interactions in ground-based growth chambers and are critical to understanding plant responses to the space environment.
pubmed: 11538555 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11538555
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An approach to crop modeling with the energy cascade

1995

T. Volk, B. Bugbee, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Use of plants in advanced life support requires models of crop growth to analyze data, to evaluate areas for improvement, and, for design and engineering, to predict the gas exchanges of crops. We used data from experiments at Utah State University and the Kennedy Space Center for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and examined it for time dependence of the major three components in the energy cascade: photosynthetic photon absorption, canopy quantum yield, and carbon use efficiency. From the Utah State data, we developed a model with a total of five trends: absorption increasing until canopy closure, then constant; quantum yield as constant, then decreasing during senescence; carbon use as constant. This system probably is the lower limit of simplicity to which a model can be reduced and yet provide substantial utility. We demonstrated this utility by using the model to predict photosynthesis and respiration for experiments at Kennedy Space Center. The most uncertainty arose in predicting a start time for the senescent decrease of canopy quantum yield. The model should be generally applicable to other crops grown in controlled environments, as a generic tool for the design of life support systems.
pubmed: 11538584 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1995/00000001/f0020003/art00006
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Vegetative growth of potato under high-pressure sodium, high-pressure sodium SON-AGRO, and metal halide lamps

1995

N.C. Yorio,C.L. Mackowiak,R.M. Wheeler,J.C. Sager

publication: HortScience

Partial Abstract

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cvs. Norland and Denali) plants were grown under high-pressure sodium (HPS), metal halide (MH), and blue-light-enhanced SON-Agro high-pressure sodium (HPS-S) lamps to study the effects of lamp spectral quality on vegetative growth. All plants were initiated from in vitro nodal cultures and grown hydroponically for 35 days at 300 µmol• m–2• s–1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) with a 12-hour light/12-hour dark photoperiod and matching 20C/16C thermoperiod.'Denali'main stems and internodes ...
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.30.2.374 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Sager/publication/279501745_Vegetative_Growth_of_Potato...
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Mineral nutrition of higher plants

1995

N.A. Tikhomirova,S.V. Trifonov,S.A. Ushakova,E.A. Morozov,O.V. Anischenko,A.A. Tikhomirov

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Balancing photosynthetic light-harvesting and light-utilization capacities in potato leaf tissue during acclimation to different growth temperatures

1995

Kenneth L. Steffen,Raymond M. Wheeler,Rajeev Arora,Jiwan P. Palta,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Physiologia plantarum

Abstract

We investigated the effect of temperature during growth and development on the relationship between light-harvesting capacity, indicated by chlorophyll concentration, and light-utilization potential, indicated by light- and bicarbonate-saturated photosynthetic oxygen evolution, in Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Norland. Clonal plantlets were transplanted and grown at 20 degrees C for 2 weeks before transfer to 12, 16, 20, 24 and 28 degrees C for 6 weeks. After 4 weeks of the temperature treatments, leaf tissue fresh weights per area were one-third higher in plants grown at 12 degrees C vs those grown at 28 degrees C. Conversely, chlorophyll content per area in tissue grown at 12 degrees C was less than one-half of that of tissue grown at 28 degrees C at 4 weeks. Photosynthetic capacity measured at a common temperature of 20 degrees C and expressed on a chlorophyll basis was inversely proportional to growth temperature. Leaf tissue from plants grown at 12 degrees C for 4 weeks had photosynthetic rates that were 3-fold higher on a chlorophyll basis than comparable tissue from plants grown at 28 degrees C. These results suggest that the relationship between light-harvesting capacity and light-utilization potential varies 3-fold in response to the growth temperatures examined. The role of this response in avoidance of photoinhibition is discussed.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1995.tb00783.x pubmed: 11538413 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1995.tb00783.x
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Plant nutrient composition altered with controlled environments for future space life support systems

1996

S.S. Nielsen, M.A. Belury, K.P. Nickel, C.A. Mitchell

publication: Progress in new crops: Proceedings of the Third National Symposium

Abstract

Hydroponic growth of 9 food crops under controlled environment (CE) conditions was evaluated as a means of manipulating and controlling the composition of edible plant parts. Hydroponic culture combined with optimizing environments increased the protein content of the edible portions of soyabeans, wheat, rice, potatoes and lettuces compared with field and handbook values of the typical edible portion of crops. For rice, wheat and potatoes, total N and non-protein N contents of plant biomass generally increased under CE conditions relative to the field, especially of leafy plant parts and roots. Potentially toxic NO3- accumulated in the vegetative tissues of CE-grown plants, but was excluded from seeds and tubers. Controlled environments increased the P content of leaf lettuce, potato tubers and rice grain, but decreased the Ca/P ratio of lettuce leaves and white potato tubers. The femur 45Ca uptake method was used to study Ca bioavailability in rat diets formulated with CE crops. Ca supplementation was required for optimum Ca absorption.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19980706176
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Cultivation of plants in space: Their contribution to the stabilizing atmospheric composition in closed ecological systems

1996

V.Ye. Rygalov

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Higher plants in biological life support systems (BLSS) not only supply man with food, accomplish recirculation of major gases (CO2 and O2) and reclaim water, they also help remove toxic impurities produced by the ecological system components from the atmosphere of the system.
Experiments to study the effect of SO2 on mixed canopies of agricultural plants with pulsing and continuous supply of gas into a sealed volume of the ecosystem showed that gaseous toxic substances can be
1. a) passively absorbed by biologically inactive components of the system, 2. b) actively absorbed and processed by plants.
Passive absorption can be described by kinetics with saturation, active absorption — by enzymatic kinetics equations. Parameters of the mathematical model describing removal of toxic substances from closed ecosystem atmosphere can be used to characterize integrally the so-called absorptive properties of the system.
Recorded intensity of visible photosynthesis of cenosis showed to be existent such rates of continuous supply of toxic substances into CES that do not essentially damage biological components of the system.

doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00873-D link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500873D
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Quantifying energy and mass transfer in crop canopies: Sensors for measurements of temperature and air velocity

1996

B. Bugbee,O. Monje,B. Tanner

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Here we report on the in situ performance of inexpensive, miniature sensors that have increased our ability to measure mass and energy fluxes from plant canopies in controlled environments: 1. Surface temperature. Canopy temperature measurements indicate changes in stomatal aperture and thus latent and sensible heat fluxes. Infrared transducers from two manufacturers (Exergen Corporation, Newton, MA; and Everest Interscience, Tucson, AZ, USA) have recently become available. Transducer accuracy matched that of a more expensive hand-held infrared thermometer. 2. Air velocity varies above and within plant canopies and is an important component in mass and energy transfer models. We tested commercially-available needle, heat-transfer anemometers (1 x 50 mm cylinder) that consist of a fine-wire thermocouple and a heater inside a hypodermic needle. The needle is heated and wind speed determined from the temperature rise above ambient. These sensors are particularly useful in measuring the low wind speeds found within plant canopies. 3. Accurate measurements of air temperature adjacent to plant leaves facilitates transport phenomena modeling. We quantified the effect of radiation and air velocity on temperature rise in thermocouples from 10 to 500 micrometers. At high radiation loads and low wind speeds, temperature errors were as large as 7 degrees C above air temperature.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00871-b pubmed: 11538791 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500871B
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Consideration in selecting crops for the human-rated life support system: A linear programming model

1996

E.F. Wheeler,J. Kossowski,E. Goto,R.W. Langhans,G. White,L.D. Albright,D. Wilcox

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A Linear Programming model has been constructed which aids in selecting appropriate crops for CELSS (Controlled Environment Life Support System) food production. A team of Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) faculty, staff, graduate students and invited experts representing more than a dozen disciplines, provided a wide range of expertise in developing the model and the crop production program. The model incorporates nutritional content and controlled-environment based production yields of carefully chosen crops into a framework where a crop mix can be constructed to suit the astronauts' needs. The crew's nutritional requirements can be adequately satisfied with only a few crops (assuming vitamin mineral supplements are provided) but this will not be satisfactory from a culinary standpoint. This model is flexible enough that taste and variety driven food choices can be built into the model.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00813-t pubmed: 11538968 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500813T
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Attributes of biomass processing in space. 34th Aeropspace Sciences Meting

1996

T.M. Crabb, R.C. Morrow

publication: 34th Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit

Abstract

Limited volume, mass, power, and other resources available during space flight significantly constrain the environment in which biomass may be produced in space. Characteristics of biomass production may significantly change between space and ground-based environments. Thus, study of biomass production processes in microgravity is absolutely necessary before biomass processing for life support in space can be utilized in a reliable and efficient manner. Biomass production can lead to closed life support systems used to provide water purification, air revitalization, food production, and waste processing. Limitations in resource availability in space constrain the control of environments in which the biomass is produced. Several plant growing systems have been flown and new systems are under development to increase the flexibility and range of environmental control. The evolution to a fully controlled biomass production environment has required several iterations to understand the basic problems involved. Thermal and total systems management is extremely important to such controlled environments, regardless of their scope.
doi: 10.2514/6.1996-491 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.1996-491
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The nature of nitrogen: An overview

1996

R.L. Mancinelli

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Most of the nitrogen available to the biosphere exists as N2 in the atmosphere, and is not useful to most organisms until it is "fixed" either biologically or abiotically (by lightning or aurorae, or industrially). Once it is fixed into NH3, usually it is either assimilated and transformed into organic N or nitrified into NO3-. Organic N can be transformed back into NH3 by ammonification. Nitrate can be converted into N2O by nitrification and denitrification, and to N2 by denitrification. Such N2O and N2 production results in nitrogen loss from ecosystems and a nitrogen gain to the atmospheric nitrogen reservoir. The different steps of the nitrogen cycle require different environmental conditions. These differences result in a spatial distribution pattern of the different nitrogen transformation reactions. Biological nitrogen fixation occurs universally in soils, sediments, fresh water, and marine systems that are both aerobic and anaerobic. Nitrification occurs primarily in aerobic habitats, whereas denitrification predominates in anaerobic habitats such as sediments and water-logged soils. In closed systems, such as plant growth chambers for CELSS, denitrification and nitrification result in a loss of fixed nitrogen available to plants.
pubmed: 11539154 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1996/00000003/f0020001/art00004
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Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus: A Plant Growth Facility for Space Flight Biotechnology Research.

1996

Hoehn A, Chamberlain D, Forsyth S, Gifford K, Hanna D, Horner M, Scovazzo P, Smith J, Stodieck L, Todd P

publication: Life Sciences Research in Space

Abstract

The final space flight version of a new plant growth chamber is presented. This plant growth chamber has been designed to maintain adequate light levels, to control temperature and humidity levels, and to control chamber atmospheric composition. This plant research facility has been integrated into a Space Shuttle payload designated PGBA (Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus ). PGBA flew aboard the STS-77 mission for 10 days in May 1996. The hardware developed for PGBA is based upon experience accumulated during the design, construction and testing of the PMASS payload, which was aboard the METEOR rocket when it exploded in October of 1995. PGBA enjoys the benefit of the Shuttle cabin air reservoir as an aid in atmospheric humidity and temperature control that was not available to PMASS. In addition PGBA benefits from a larger volume and a greater energy budget than PMASS. Together these advantages allowed an enlarged plant chamber, higher light levels, and greater independent control of temperature, humidity, and gas composition variables. Details of the lighting system, the thermal system, the dchumidification system, the atmospheric treatment system, the control system, and the plant nutrient delivery system are presented. Overview schematics of the thermal system and atmospheric treatment systems are included below.
link: https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996ESASP.390...61H
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Porous substrate water relations observed during the Greenhouse II flight experiment (MIR Space Station - 1995

1996

G.E. Bingham, S.B. Jones, I. Podolski, B. Yendler

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

"Porous Substrate Water Relations Observed During the Greenhouse-II Fli" by GE Bingham, Scott B. Jones et al. Porous Substrate Water Relations Observed During the Greenhouse-II Flight Experiment (Mir Space Station, 1995) Porous substrate water relations observed during the greenhouse-II flight experiment (Mir Space Station, 1995). SAE Technical Paper no. 961547. ...
link: https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/psc_facpub/153/
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Ethylene production by plants in a closed environment

1996

R.M. Wheeler,B.V. Peterson,J.C. Sager,W.M. Knott

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Ethylene production by 20-m2 stands of wheat, soybean, lettuce and potato was monitored throughout growth and development in NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Biomass Production Chamber. Chamber ethylene concentrations rose during periods of rapid growth for all four species, reaching 120 parts per billion (ppb) for wheat, 60 ppb for soybean, and 40 to 50 ppb for lettuce and potato. Following this, ethylene concentrations declined during seed fill and maturation (wheat and soybean), or remained relatively constant (potato). Lettuce plants were harvested during rapid growth and peak ethylene production. The highest ethylene production rates (unadjusted for chamber leakage) ranged from 0.04 to 0.06 ml m-2 day-1 during rapid growth of lettuce and wheat stands, or approximately 0.8 to 1.1 nl g-1 fresh weight h-1. Results suggest that ethylene production by plants is a normal event coupled to periods of rapid metabolic activity, and that ethylene removal or control measures should be considered for growing crops in a tightly closed CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00877-h pubmed: 11538797 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500877H
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Optimizing of food processing for a lunar base

1996

J. Hunter, A.E. Drysdale

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

Food processing will have a significant effect on both system performance and crew habitability on long-duration human space missions. To maximize habitability, the food processing system must be able to utilize available food items for producing a palatable and diverse menu, while minimizing equipment, consumables mass, and manpower requirements. The authors' goal was to minimize the equivalent mass cost (as defined in earlier work) of the food processing system under constraints of nutritional adequacy, variety and hedonic acceptability. In a companion paper, we have developed a concept for organized analysis of food processing at a Lunar or planetary station. In this paper, we propose a way to optimize the cost-effectiveness of this concept for a Lunar base. A four-man ten-year Lunar base was assumed for performing this analysis, based on previous work by Drysdale on regenerative life support systems. An equivalent mass approach was used, with the following equivalencies defined (Drysdale et al, 1994): Volume 0.014 m3/kg Energy 3,900 kWh/kg Cooling 5,700 MJ/kg Manpower 10 labor hr/kg Equipment, consumables, and manpower requirements have been identified for all major food processing tasks within a bioregenerative life support system. Power and cooling requirements for food preparation are taken to be minimal in comparison to requirements for hydroponic farming. The baseline was a low-fat CELSS diet, such as identified by Langhans, with externally supplied foodstuffs accounting for 15% of calories. However, the analysis should be adequate for many different diets. Where possible, multiple-use equipment was baselined, with commercial data used to define cost factors such as mass and energy use. Consumables were identified and costed according to the source, in particular whether they are produced locally, such as tofu or flour, or shipped from Earth, such as spices. Draft estimates of the equivalent mass of a food processing system are about equal to 10% of the mass of a life support system. However, many of these items would be required for any scenario, including supply from Earth, and should not be considered as unique to a bioregenerative life support system.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44725528
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Choosing plants to be grown in a controlled environment life support system (CELSS) based upon attractive vegetarian diets

1996

F.B. Salisbury, M.A.Z. Clark

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Space explorers on the Moon, Mars, or even in a space craft might grow plants in a CELSS to remove CO2 and provide O2 and food. Selection of crops to be studied has been rather arbitrary but should be based on plants that can provide a balanced and attractive, mostly vegetarian diet. Additional selection criteria include ease of growth in artificial environments and sufficient variety provided over long intervals. This article is based on a workshop convened to study vegetarian diets for use in a CELSS. Participants included nutritional scientists, practicing vegetarians, and interested employees of the Johnson Space Center. It was concluded that diets meeting the criteria could be formulated, and a list of suitable crops was compiled.
pubmed: 11538565 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1996/00000002/f0020003/art00008
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Infrared light-emitting diode radiation causes gravitropic and morphological effects in dark-grown oat seedlings

1996

Corinne F. Johnson,Christopher S. Brown,Raymond M. Wheeler,John C. Sager,David K. Chapman,Gerald F. Deitzer

publication: Photochemistry and photobiology

Abstract

Oat (Avena sativa cv Seger) seedlings were irradiated with IR light-emitting diode (LED) radiation passed through a visible-light-blocking filter. Infrared LED irradiated seedlings exhibited differences in growth and gravitropic response when compared to seedlings grown in darkness at the same temperature. Thus, the oat seedlings in this study were able to detect IR LED radiation. These findings call into question the use of IR LED as a safe-light for some photosensitive plant response experiments. These findings also expand the defined range of wavelengths involved in radiation-gravity (light-gravity) interactions to include wavelengths in the IR region of the spectrum.
doi: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1996.tb03020.x pubmed: 11536734 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751-1097.1996.tb03020.x
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Using a porous-tube system to study potato responses to constant water tension in a rooting matrix

1996

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

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Carbon dioxide exchange of lettuce plants under hypobaric conditions

1996

K.A. Corey,M.E. Bates,S.L. Adams

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Growth of plants in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) may involve the use of hypobaric pressures enabling lower mass requirements for atmospheres and possible enhancement of crop productivity. A controlled environment plant growth chamber with hypobaric capability designed and built at Ames Research Center was used to determine if reduced pressures influence the rates of photosynthesis (Ps) and dark respiration (DR) of hydroponically grown lettuce plants. The chamber, referred to as a plant volatiles chamber (PVC), has a growing area of about 0.2 m2, a total gas volume of about 0.7 m3, and a leak rate at 50 kPa of <0.1%/day. When the pressure in the chamber was reduced from ambient to 51 kPa, the rate of net Ps increased by 25% and the rate of DR decreased by 40%. The rate of Ps increased linearly with decreasing pressure. There was a greater effect of reduced pressure at 41 Pa CO2 than at 81 Pa CO2. This is consistent with reports showing greater inhibition of photorespiration (Pr) in reduced O2 at low CO2 concentrations. When the partial pressure of O2 was held constant but the total pressure was varied between 51 and 101 kPa, the rate of CO2 uptake was nearly constant, suggesting that low pressure enhancement of Ps may be mainly attributable to lowered partial pressure of O2 and the accompanying reduction in Pr. The effects of lowered partial pressure of O2 on Ps and DR could result in substantial increases in the rates of biomass production, enabling rapid throughput of crops or allowing flexibility in the use of mass and energy resources for a CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00888-l pubmed: 11538809 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500888L
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Carbon dioxide exchange of lettuce plants under hypobaric conditions

1996

K.A. Corey,M.E. Bates,S.L. Adams

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Growth of plants in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) may involve the use of hypobaric pressures enabling lower mass requirements for atmospheres and possible enhancement of crop productivity. A controlled environment plant growth chamber with hypobaric capability designed and built at Ames Research Center was used to determine if reduced pressures influence the rates of photosynthesis (Ps) and dark respiration (DR) of hydroponically grown lettuce plants. The chamber, referred to as a plant volatiles chamber (PVC), has a growing area of about 0.2 m2, a total gas volume of about 0.7 m3, and a leak rate at 50 kPa of <0.1%/day. When the pressure in the chamber was reduced from ambient to 51 kPa, the rate of net Ps increased by 25% and the rate of DR decreased by 40%. The rate of Ps increased linearly with decreasing pressure. There was a greater effect of reduced pressure at 41 Pa CO2 than at 81 Pa CO2. This is consistent with reports showing greater inhibition of photorespiration (Pr) in reduced O2 at low CO2 concentrations. When the partial pressure of O2 was held constant but the total pressure was varied between 51 and 101 kPa, the rate of CO2 uptake was nearly constant, suggesting that low pressure enhancement of Ps may be mainly attributable to lowered partial pressure of O2 and the accompanying reduction in Pr. The effects of lowered partial pressure of O2 on Ps and DR could result in substantial increases in the rates of biomass production, enabling rapid throughput of crops or allowing flexibility in the use of mass and energy resources for a CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00820-5 pubmed: 11538809 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500888L
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Carbon dioxide exchange of lettuce plants under hypobaric conditions

1996

K.A. Corey,M.E. Bates,S.L. Adams

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Growth of plants in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) may involve the use of hypobaric pressures enabling lower mass requirements for atmospheres and possible enhancement of crop productivity. A controlled environment plant growth chamber with hypobaric capability designed and built at Ames Research Center was used to determine if reduced pressures influence the rates of photosynthesis (Ps) and dark respiration (DR) of hydroponically grown lettuce plants. The chamber, referred to as a plant volatiles chamber (PVC), has a growing area of about 0.2 m2, a total gas volume of about 0.7 m3, and a leak rate at 50 kPa of <0.1%/day. When the pressure in the chamber was reduced from ambient to 51 kPa, the rate of net Ps increased by 25% and the rate of DR decreased by 40%. The rate of Ps increased linearly with decreasing pressure. There was a greater effect of reduced pressure at 41 Pa CO2 than at 81 Pa CO2. This is consistent with reports showing greater inhibition of photorespiration (Pr) in reduced O2 at low CO2 concentrations. When the partial pressure of O2 was held constant but the total pressure was varied between 51 and 101 kPa, the rate of CO2 uptake was nearly constant, suggesting that low pressure enhancement of Ps may be mainly attributable to lowered partial pressure of O2 and the accompanying reduction in Pr. The effects of lowered partial pressure of O2 on Ps and DR could result in substantial increases in the rates of biomass production, enabling rapid throughput of crops or allowing flexibility in the use of mass and energy resources for a CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00888-l pubmed: 11538976 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500888L
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Considerations in miniaturizing simplified agro-ecosystems for advanced life support

1996

Tyler Volk

publication: Ecological engineering

Abstract

Miniaturizing the Earth's biogeochemical cycles to support human life during future space missions is the goal of the NASA research and engineering program in advanced life support. Mission requirements to reduce mass, volume, and power have focused efforts on (1) a maximally simplified agro-ecosystem of humans, food crops, and microbes; and, (2) a design for optimized productivity of food crops with high light levels over long days, with hydroponics, with elevated carbon dioxide and other controlled environmental factors, as well as with genetic selection for desirable crop properties. Mathematical modeling contributes to the goals by establishing trade-offs, by analyzing the growth and development of experimental crops, and by pointing to the possibilities of directed phasic control using modified field crop models to increase the harvest index.
doi: 10.1016/0925-8574(95)00053-4 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0925857495000534
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Identifying yield-optimizing environments for two cowpea breeding lines by manipulating photoperiod and harvest scenario

1996

Tracy A. Ohler,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Photoperiod and harvest scenario of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) canopies were manipulated to optimize productivity for use in future controlled ecological life-support systems. Productivity was measured by edible yield rate (EYR:g m-2 day-1), shoot harvest index (SHI: g edible biomass [g total shoot dry weight]), and yield-efficiency rate (YER:g edible biomass m-2 day-1 per[g nonedible shoot dry weight]). Breeding lines 'IT84S-2246' (S-2246) and "IT82D-889' (D-889) were grown in a greenhouse under 8-, 12-, or 24-h photoperiods. S-2246 was short-day and D-889 was day-neutral for flowering. Under each photoperiod, cowpeas were harvested either for leaves only, seeds only, or leaves plus seeds (mixed harvest). Photoperiod did not affect EYR of either breeding line for any harvest scenario tested. Averaged over both breeding lines, seed harvest gave the highest EYR at 6.7 g m-2 day-1. The highest SHI (65%) and YER (94 mg m-2 day-1 g-1) were achieved for leaf-only harvest of D-889 under an 8-h photoperiod. For leaf-only harvest of S-2246, both SHI and YER increased with increasing photoperiod, but declined for seed-only and mixed harvests. However, photoperiod had no effect on SHI or YER for D-889 for any harvest scenario. A second experiment utilized the short-day cowpea breeding line 'IT89KD-288' (D-288) and the day-neutral breeding line 'IT87D-941-1' (D-941) to compare yield parameters using photoperiod extension under differing lamp types. This experiment confirmed the photoperiod responses of D-889 and S-2246 to a mixed-harvest scenario and indicated that daylength extension with higher irradiance from high pressure sodium lamps further suppressed EYR, SHI, and YER of the short-day breeding line D-288.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.121.3.576 pubmed: 11539355 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cary-Mitchell/publication/11807803_Identifying_Yield-optimiz...
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Nitrogen dynamics in plant growth systems

1996

A.J. Bloom

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The predominant nitrogen source for the plants in closed environmental systems is the mineral nitrogen (i.e., nitrate and/or ammonium) in the nutrient medium. The following focuses on the processes through which plants obtain nitrate and ammonium from the rhizosphere and on the influences that each form has upon plant performance. Most plant species can sustain full growth at nitrate or ammonium concentrations that are over two orders of magnitude lower than those provided in most plant growth systems. Under the high concentrations (mM) normally used, root nitrogen absorption is downregulated: a) both the affinity and capacity of the transport systems for ammonium or nitrate are diminished, b) efflux of either ion becomes a significant percentage of influx, and c) root growth is inhibited. High concentrations also promote accumulation of ammonium or borate in plant tissues to potentially deleterious levels and foster microbial outbreaks. Several lines of evidence argue that roots in natural soils are normally exposed to lower concentrations (micromoles) of nitrate or ammonium: models of root nutrient absorption indicate that roots deplete rhizosphere nitrate and ammonium to such levels; the high-affinity transport systems for nitrate and ammonium have optimal control in this range; and root growth and development is maximized under such conditions. The high-affinity transport systems are distinct for nitrate and ammonium. In general, the affinity of the nitrate system for nitrate is less than the ammonium system for ammonium. Nitrate absorption is induced by the presence of ammonium or nitrate. Roots most rapidly absorb nitrate in the zone where root hairs emerge and ammonium in the zone of division near the apex. Nitrate absorption tends to alkalinize the rhizosphere, whereas ammonium absorption acidifies the rhizosphere. The energy requirements for absorption and assimilation of nitrate are several fold higher than those of ammonium. Root growth and elongation are more extensive when ammonium is provided as the sole nitrogen source, perhaps as a consequence of the lower energy requirements or the increased rhizosphere acidity.
pubmed: 11539158 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1996/00000003/f0020001/art00007
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Life sciences on the Moon

1996

G. Horneck

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Despite of the fact that the lunar environment lacks essential prerequisites for supporting life, lunar missions offer new and promising opportunities to the life sciences community. Among the disciplines of interest are exobiology, radiation biology, ecology and human physiology. In exobiology, the Moon offers an ideal platform for studies related to the understanding of the principles, leading to the origin, evolution and distribution of life. These include the analysis of lunar samples and meteorites in relatively pristine conditions, radioastronomical search for other planetary systems or Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI), and studies on the role of radiation in evolutionary processes and on the environmental limits for life. For radiation biology, the Moon provides an unique laboratory with built-in sources for optical as well as ionising radiation to investigate the biological importance of the various components of cosmic and solar radiation. Before establishing a lunar base, precursor missions will provide a characterisation of the radiation field, determination of depth dose distributions in different absorbers, the installation of a solar flare alert system, and a qualification of the biological efficiency of the mixed radiation environment. One of the most challenging projects falls into the domain of ecology with the establishment for the first time of an artificial ecosystem on a celestial body beyond the Earth. From this venture, a better understanding of the dynamics regulating our terrestrial biosphere is expected. It will also serve as a precursor of bioregenerative life support systems for a lunar base. The establishment of a lunar base with eventually long-term human presence will raise various problems in the fields of human physiology and health care, psychology and sociology. Protection guidelines for living in this hostile environment have to be established.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(96)00095-6 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0273117796000956
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Interacting effects of photoperiod and photosynthetic photon flux on net carbon assimilation and starch accumulation in potato leaves

1996

Gary W. Stutte,Neil C. Yorio,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The effect of photoperiod (PP) on net carbon assimilation rate (Anet) and starch accumulation in newly mature canopy leaves of 'Norland' potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) was determined under high (412 varies as mol m-2s-1) and low (263 varies as mol m-2s-1) photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) conditions. The Anet decreased from 13.9 to 11.6 and 9.3 micromoles m-2s-1, and leaf starch increased from 70 to 129 and 118 mg g-1 drymass (DM) as photoperiod (PP) was increased from 12/12 to 18/6, and 24/0, respectively. Longer PP had a greater effect with high PPF conditions than with low PPF treatments, with high PPF showing greater decline in Anet. Photoperiod did not affect either the CO2 compensation point (50 micromoles mol-1) or CO2 saturation point (1100-1200 micromoles mol-1) for Anet. These results show an apparent limit to the amount of starch that can be stored (approximately 15% DM) in potato leaves. An apparent feedback mechanism exists for regulating Anet under high PPF, high CO2, and long PP, but there was no correlation between Anet and starch concentration in individual leaves. This suggests that maximum Anet cannot be sustained with elevated CO2 conditions under long PP (> or = 12 hours) and high PPF conditions. If a physiological limit exists for the fixation and transport of carbon,then increasing photoperiod and light intensity under high CO2 conditions is not the most appropriate means to maximize the yield of potatoes.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.121.2.264 pubmed: 11539332 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gary-Stutte/publication/11807780_Interacting_effects_of_phot...
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Photosynthetic photon flux, photoperiod, and temperature effects on volatile emission from lettuce

1996

C.S. Charron, D.J. Cantliffe, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

To investigate the effects of environment on plant volatile emissions, 'Waldmann's Green' leaf lettuce was cultivated under different levels of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), photoperiod, and temperature. A modified growth chamber was used to sample plant volatile emissions nondestructively, over time, and under controlled conditions. Total volatile emission rates were significantly higher from lettuce cultivated under PPF of 360 or 200 micromoles m-2 s-1 compared to 105 micromoles m-2 s-1, and significantly higher under a 16-h photoperiod than an 8-h photoperiod. No differences were detected among emission rates from different temperature treatments. In controlled environments, emissions could be regulated by adjusting environmental conditions accordingly.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.121.3.488 pubmed: 11539354 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ray-Wheeler-2/publication/11807802_Photosynthetic_Photon_Flu...
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Biomass accumulation in hydroponically grown sweetpotato in a controlled environment: a preliminary study

1996

J. Hill,D. Douglas,P. David,D. Mortley,A. Trotman,C. Bonsi

publication: Acta horticulturae

Abstract

In the development of a plant growth model, the assumptions made and the general equations representing an understanding of plant growth are gradually refined as more information is acquired through experimentation. One such experiment that contributed to sweetpotato model development consisted of measuring biomass accumulation of sweetpotato grown in hydroponic culture in a plant growth chamber. Plants were started from fifteen centimeter long 'TU-82-155' sweetpotato vine cuttings spaced 25 cm apart in each of 18 rectangular growing channels (0.15 by 0.15 by 1.2m) in a system designed to use the nutrient film technique (NFT). Each channel contained four plants. The 3.5m by 5.2m plant growth chamber environmental parameters included an 18h photoperiod, 500 micromoles m-2 s-1 of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), and a diurnal light/dark temperature of 28 degrees C/22 degrees C. The relative humidity was 80 +/- 5% and the CO2 partial pressure was ambient (350 ppm). The nutrient solution contained in 30L reservoirs was a modified half Hoagland's solution with a 1:2.4 N:K ratio and a pH of 6.2. Solution replenishment occurred when the electrical conductivity (EC) level dropped below 1050. Plants were harvested at 15 days after planting (DAP) and weekly thereafter until day 134. By 57 DAP, stems and fibrous roots had acquired 90% of their total dry biomass, while leaves had reached 84% of their maximum dry biomass. Beginning at 64 DAP dry biomass accumulation in the storage roots dominated the increase in dry biomass for the plants. Dry weight of storage roots at 120 DAP was 165 g/plant or 1.1 kg/m2. Resulting growth curves were consistent with the physiological processes occurring in the plant. Results from this study will be incorporated in a plant growth model for use in conjunction with controlled life support systems for long-term manned space missions.
doi: 10.17660/actahortic.1996.440.5 pubmed: 11541575 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/440/440_5.htm
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Effect of CO2 levels on nutrient content of lettuce and radish

1996

J.D. McKeehen,D.J. Smart,C.L. Mackowiak,R.M. Wheeler,S.S. Nielsen

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Atmospheric carbon-dioxide enrichment is known to affect the yield of lettuce and radish grown in controlled environments, but little is known about CO2 enrichment effects on the chemical composition of lettuce and radish. These crops are useful model systems for a Controlled Ecological Life-Support System (CELSS), largely because of their relatively short production cycles. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cultivar 'Waldmann's Green' and radish (Raphanus sativus L.) cultivar 'Giant White Globe' were grown both in the field and in controlled environments, where hydroponic nutrient solution, light, and temperature were regulated, and where CO2 levels were controlled at 400, 1000, 5000, or 10,000 ppm. Plants were harvested at maturity, dried, and analyzed for proximate composition (protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrate), total nitrogen (N), nitrate N, free sugars, starch, total dietary fiber, and minerals. Total N, protein N, nonprotein N (NPN), and nitrate N generally increased for radish roots and lettuce leaves when grown under growth chamber conditions compared to field conditions. The nitrate-N level of lettuce leaves, as a percentage of total NPN, decreased with increasing levels of CO2 enrichment. The ash content of radish roots and of radish and lettuce leaves decreased with increasing levels of CO2 enrichment. The levels of certain minerals differed between field- and chamber-grown materials, including changes in the calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) contents of radish and lettuce leaves, resulting in reduced Ca/P ratio for chamber-grown materials. The free-sugar contents were similar between the field and chamber-grown lettuce leaves, but total dietary fiber content was much higher in the field-grown plant material. The starch content of growth-chamber lettuce increased with CO2 level.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00864-b pubmed: 11538818 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500864B
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Injuries to plants from controlled environment contaminants

1996

T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The use of controlled environments is subject to problems from contaminants emitted from materials of the system and from plants. Many contaminants are difficult to identify because injurious dosages are very low, there is a lack of information on what compounds injure plants, because species and cultivars differ greatly in their sensitivity to injury and injury symptoms often are not distinctive. Plastics have been shown to emit many different volatile compounds. The compound, di-butyl phthalate, contained in certain flexible plastics, has been shown to be very toxic to plants. Other injuries have been produced by caulking compounds and bonded screening. Paints have been shown to release xylene that is toxic to plants. Steam for humidification can cause problems because of hydroxylamines and other compounds added to steam used for heating to control fungal growth in return lines. Mercury, from broken thermometers is a particular problem in growth chambers because small quantities can collect in cracks and slowly volatilize to slow growth of plants. Plants themselves release large quantities of volatile hydrocarbons, with ethylene being the commonly recognized chemical that can be damaging when allowed to accumulate. People release large quantities of carbon dioxide which can cause variations in the rate of growth of plants. Contaminant problems can be controlled through filtering of the air or ventilation with make-up air, however the potential for problems is always present and careful testing should be undertaken with the particular species and cultivars being grown insure that there are no toxic agents altering growth in each particular controlled environment being utilized.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00878-i pubmed: 11538798 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500878I
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The spacelab-Mir-1 "Greenhouse-2" experiment

1996

G.E. Bingham,F.B. Salisbury,W.F. Campbell,J.G. Carman,D.L. Bubenheim,B. Yendler,V.N. Sytchev,Yu.A. Berkovitch,M.A. Levinskikh,I.G. Podolsky

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The Spacelab-Mir-1 (SLM-1) mission is the first docking of the Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-71) with the Orbital Station Mir in June 1995. The SLM-1 “Greenhouse-2” experiment will utilize the Russian-Bulgarian-developed plant growth unit (Svet). “Greenhouse-2” will include two plantings (1) designed to test the capability of Svet to grow a crop of Superdwarf wheat from seed to seed, and (2) to provide green plant material for post-flight analysis. Protocols, procedures, and equipment for the experiment have been developed by the US-Russian science team. “Greenhouse-2” will also provide the first orbital test of a new Svet Instrumentation System (SIS) developed by Utah State University to provide near real time data on plant environmental parameters and gas-exchange rates. SIS supplements the Svet control and monitoring system with additional sensors for substrate moisture, air temperature, IR leaf temperature, light, oxygen, pressure, humidity, and carbon-dioxide. SIS provides the capability to monitor canopy transpiration and net assimilation of the plants growing in each vegetation unit (root zone) by enclosing the canopy in separate, retractable, ventilated leaf chambers. Six times during the seed-to-seed experiment, plant samples will be collected, leaf area measured, and plant parts fixed and/or dried for ground analysis. A second planting initiated 30 days before the arrival of a U.S. Shuttle [originally planned to be STS-71] is designed to provide green material at the vegetative development stage for ground analysis. [As this paper is being edited, the experiment has been delayed until after the arrival of STS-71.]
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00881-E link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500881E
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No evidence of adverse effects on germination, emergence, and fruit yield due to space exposure of tomato seeds

1996

Brian A. Kahn,Peter J. Stoffella

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Seeds of 'Rutgers California Supreme' tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) were exposed to outer space conditions aboard the long duration exposure facility (LDEF) satellite in the space exposed experiment developed for students (SEEDS) project of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Seeds aboard the LDEF were packed in dacron bags forming four layers per sealed canister. Some of these seeds were used in Oklahoma and Florida for studies of germination, emergence, and fruit yield. Among all measured variables in three experiments, there was only one significant main effect of canister 2 versus canister 7 (for mean time to germination) and only one main effect of layer (for seedling shoot dry weight). There also were only two inconsistent canister x layer interactions in the germination tests. The contrast of Earth-based control seed versus space-exposed seed was significant four times: in Oklahoma in 1991 the mean time to germination of space-exposed seeds and the days to 50% of final germination were 0.7 days less than for Earth-based seeds, and in Florida in 1992 seedling percent emergence and shoot dry weight were increased by space exposure. Fruit yield and marketability were unaffected in plants grown from space-exposed seeds. These results support student findings from the SEEDS project, and provide evidence that tomato seeds can survive in space for several years without adverse effects on germination, emergence, and fruit yield.
pubmed: 11539352 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539352
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Charge balance--A theoretical basis for modulating pH fluctuations in plant nutrient delivery systems

1996

J.D. Lea-Cox, G.W. Stutte, W.L. Berry, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Existing control systems for pH and nutrient supply in hydroponic space plant growth units and bioregenerative life support (BLS) systems require acid and base additions to correct plant-induced charge imbalances in the nutrient solution. Plant growth is dependent on nutrient availability, and the active uptake of ions by roots changes the pH of the nutrient solution. This change in pH is an integrated response to nutrient and organic ion influx/efflux by the plant. Plant nutrient requirements, as a function of crop development and driven by specific environmental conditions, influence the magnitude of the charge balance requirement. Nitrogen is the dominant nutrient taken up by plant species. If the daily crop nutrient (N) requirement at each developmental stage is known, and the daily addition of nutrients (relative addition rate = RAR) to the plant growth system is calculated, controlling the daily addition of ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-) offers a mechanism whereby pH fluctuations in the nutrient solution could be largely minimized and controlled, reducing acid or base additions to the system.
pubmed: 11539161 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539161
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Proximate composition of CELSS crops grown in NASA’s biomass production chamber

1996

R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,J.C. Sager,W.M. Knott,W.L. Berry

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Edible biomass from four crops of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), four crops of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), four crops of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), and three crops of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) grown in NASA's CELSS Biomass Production Chamber were analyzed for proximate composition. All plants were grown using recirculating nutrient (hydroponic) film culture with pH and electrical conductivity automatically controlled. Temperature and humidity were controlled to near optimal levels for each species and atmospheric carbon dioxide partial pressures were maintained near 100 Pa during the light cycles. Soybean seed contained the highest percentage of protein and fat, potato tubers and wheat seed contained the highest levels of carbohydrate, and lettuce leaves contained the highest level of ash. Analyses showed values close to data published for field-grown plants with several exceptions: In comparison with field-grown plants, wheat seed had higher protein levels; soybean seed had higher ash and crude fiber levels; and potato tubers and lettuce leaves had higher protein and ash levels. The higher ash and protein levels may have been a result of the continuous supply of nutrients (e.g., potassium and nitrogen) to the plants by the recirculating hydroponic culture.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00860-h pubmed: 11538813 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500860H
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Nitrogen dynamics in the CELSS Breadboard Facility at Kennedy Space Center

1996

G.W. Stutte

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

For the past 9 years, the Breadboard Project at Kennedy Space Center has studied the feasibility of using crop plants in bioregenerative life support systems for long-duration space missions. Nitrogen (N) has been emphasized in nutrient balance studies because it is a major plant nutrient, undergoes biogenic and abiogenic transformations, and is often limiting to plant growth under field conditions. Nitrogen budgets have been calculated from experimental results to quantify utilization and losses associated with specific crop production systems. The Breadboard Project has recently completed a 418-day potato crop study using recycled nutrient solution to evaluate the impact of continuous production on life support functions. A continuous production system is desirable in maintaining N balance within a solution because crop uptake rates vary dramatically depending upon the stage of crop development. Strategies for recycling N using biological techniques (e.g., biomass degradation with microbial bioreactors) have required that the production system be modified to distribute inputs more evenly over time. Recovery of N is dependent on the form of N entering the bioreactor and the desired output. Aerobic and anaerobic bioreactors for the recovery of N from waste streams and its transformation into a form usable by higher plants are being designed and tested.
pubmed: 11539163 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1996/00000003/f0020001/art00012
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Costs of providing edible biomass for a balanced vegetation diet in a controlled ecological life support system

1996

C.A. Mitchell, T.A.O. Dougher, S.S. Nielsen, M.A. Belury, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Plants in space biology

Partial Abstract

Costs of Providing Edible Biomass for a Balanced Vegetarian Diet in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System, In | CiNii Research Costs of Providing Edible Biomass for a Balanced Vegetarian Diet in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System, In Institute of Genetic Ecology, Tohoku University ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1570009749193306752
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Recycling crop residues for use in recirculating hydroponic crop production Acta Hort 440:19-24

1996

C.L. Mackowiak, J.L. Garland, J.C. Sager

publication: Acta horticulturae

Abstract

As part of bioregenerative life support feasibility testing by NASA, crop residues are being used to resupply elemental nutrients to recirculating hydroponic crop production systems. Methods for recovering nutrients from crop residues have evolved from water soaking (leaching) to rapid aerobic bioreactor processing. Leaching residues recovered the majority of elements but it also recovered significant amounts of soluble organics. The high organic content of leachates was detrimental to plant growth. Aerobic bioreactor processing reduced the organic content ten-fold, which reduced or eliminated phytotoxic effects. Wheat and potato production studies were successful using effluents from reactors having with 8- to 1-day retention times. Aerobic bioreactor effluents supplied at least half of the crops elemental mass needs in these studies. Descriptions of leachate and effluent mineral content, biomass productivity, microbial activity, and nutrient budgets for potato and wheat are presented.
doi: 10.17660/actahortic.1996.440.4 pubmed: 11541570 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/440/440_4.htm
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Suggestions for crops grown in controlled ecological life-support systems, based on attractive vegetarian diets

1996

F.B. Salisbury,M.A.Z. Clark

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Assuming that crops grown in controlled ecological life-support systems (CELSS) should provide a basis for meals that are both nutritious and attractive (to taste and vision), and that CELSS diets on the moon or Mars or in space-craft during long voyages will have to be mostly vegetarian, a workshop was convened at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, U.S.A. on 19 to 21 January, 1994. Participants consisted of trained nutritionists and others; many of the approximately 18 presenters who discussed possible diets were practicing vegetarians, some for more than two decades. Considering all the presentations, seven conclusions (or points for discussion) could be formulated: nutritious vegetarian diets are relatively easily to formulate, vegetarian diets are healthy, variety is essential in vegetarian diets, some experiences (e.g., Bios-3 and Biosphere 2) are relevant to planning of CELSS diets, physical constraints will limit the choice of crops, a preliminary list of recommended crops can be formulated, and this line of research has some potential practical spinoffs. The list of crops and the reasons for including specific crops might be of interest to professionals in the field of health and nutrition as well as to those who are designing closed ecological systems.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00859-d pubmed: 11538812 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500859D
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Measurement of net photosynthetic and transpiration rates of spinach and maize plants under hypobaric condition

1996

Eiji GOTO,Hiroki OHTA,Keiko IWABUCHI,Tadashi TAKAKURA

publication: Journal of Agricultural Meteorology

Abstract

An environmental control system for measuring net photosynthetic and transpiration rates was constructed to study the feasibility of growing plants under hypobaric condition in order to achieve crop production for a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) in space. The total pressure of the system's assimilation chamber was reduced to 10kPa, with the rates for spinach and maize plants being measured under total air pressures of 10, 40, 70, and 100kPa at the same CO2 partial pressure condition. Photosynthetic rates of spinach and maize increased until a total pressure of 10kPa. The rate of increase in the photosynthetic rate under low total pressures was distinctive in maize. In addition, the rate of increase was found to be affected by the CO2 gas diffusion rate. Photosynthesis is considered to be enhanced by a decrease in boundary layer resistance and stomatal resistance to CO2 transfer due to an increase in the CO2 diffusion coefficient. The transpiration rate of spinach slightly increased under low total pressures, whereas that of maize also increased, though much less; both plants had lower rates than those simulated using water vapor diffusion theory.
doi: 10.2480/agrmet.52.117 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/agrmet1943/52/2/52_2_117/_article/-char/ja/
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Potato growth in a porous tube water and nutrient delivery system

1996

R.J. Bula,R.C. Morrow,T.W. Tibbitts

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv. 'Norland', vegetative growth and tuber productivity grown in the porous water and nutrient delivery system (PTNDS) developed by the Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics were compared with the vegetative growth and tuber productivity of plants grown in a peat:vermiculite potting mixture (PT/VR). The plants were grown at 12, 16, and 24-h light periods, 18 degrees C constant temperature, 70% relative humidity, and 300 micromol m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux. Canopy height of plants grown in the PT/VR system was taller than that of plants grown in the PTNDS system. Canopy height differences were greatest when the plants were grown under a 24-h photoperiod. Leaf and stem dry masses were similar for plants grown in the two systems under the 12-h photoperiod. Under the 24-h photoperiod, leaf and stem dry masses of plants grown in the PT/VR system were more than 3 times those of plants grown in the PTNDS system. Tuber dry masses were similar for plants grown in the two systems under the 12-h photoperiod. Under the 24 h-photoperiod, tuber dry weights of plants grown in the PT/VR system were more than twice those of plants grown in the PTNDS system. A slightly higher harvest index (ratio of tuber weight to leaf plus stem weight) was noted for the plants grown in the PTNDS than for the plants grown in the PT/VR system. Plants grown in the PTNDS system at the 24-h photoperiod matured earlier than plants grown at this photoperiod in the PT/VR system. Vegetative growth and tuber productivity of plants grown under the 16-h photoperiod generally were intermediate to those noted for plants grown under the 12 and 24-h photoperiods. These results indicate that potato plants grown in a PTNDS system may require less plant growing volume, mature in a shorter time, and likely produce more tubers per unit area compared with plants grown in the PT/VR system. These plant characteristics are a distinct advantage for a plant growing unit of a CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00884-h pubmed: 11538805 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500884H
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Photoperiod affects net carbon assimilation and starch accumulation in potato leaves

1996

G.W. Stutte, N.C. Yorio, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The effect of photoperiod (PP) on net carbon assimilation rate (Anet) and starch accumulation in newly mature canopy leaves of 'Norland' potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) was determined under high (412 varies as mol m-2s-1) and low (263 varies as mol m-2s-1) photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) conditions. The Anet decreased from 13.9 to 11.6 and 9.3 micromoles m-2s-1, and leaf starch increased from 70 to 129 and 118 mg g-1 drymass (DM) as photoperiod (PP) was increased from 12/12 to 18/6, and 24/0, respectively. Longer PP had a greater effect with high PPF conditions than with low PPF treatments, with high PPF showing greater decline in Anet. Photoperiod did not affect either the CO2 compensation point (50 micromoles mol-1) or CO2 saturation point (1100-1200 micromoles mol-1) for Anet. These results show an apparent limit to the amount of starch that can be stored (approximately 15% DM) in potato leaves. An apparent feedback mechanism exists for regulating Anet under high PPF, high CO2, and long PP, but there was no correlation between Anet and starch concentration in individual leaves. This suggests that maximum Anet cannot be sustained with elevated CO2 conditions under long PP (> or = 12 hours) and high PPF conditions. If a physiological limit exists for the fixation and transport of carbon,then increasing photoperiod and light intensity under high CO2 conditions is not the most appropriate means to maximize the yield of potatoes.
pubmed: 11539332 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gary-Stutte/publication/11807780_Interacting_effects_of_phot...
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Size of tuber propagule influences injury of ‘Kennebec’ potato plants by constant light

1996

Kent E. Cushman,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Chlorosis and necrotic spotting develop on the foliage of particular cultivars of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) when grown under constant light. 'Kennebec', a cultivar severely injured by constant light when propagated from tissue-cultured plantlets, also was injured when plants were propagated from small tuber pieces (approximately 1 g). However, plants did not develop injury when propagated from large tuber pieces (approximately 100 g). Plants from large tuber pieces grew more rapidly than plants from small tuber pieces. The role of plant vigor and carbohydrate translocation in controlling injury development is discussed.
pubmed: 11539866 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11539866
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Varying plant density and harvest time to optimize cowpea leaf yield and nutrient content

1996

Tracy A. Ohler,S. Suzanne Nielsen,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Plant density and harvest time were manipulated to optimize vegetative (foliar) productivity of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] canopies for future dietary use in controlled ecological life-support systems as vegetables or salad greens. Productivity was measured as total shoot and edible dry weights (DW), edible yield rate [(EYR) grams DW per square meter per day], shoot harvest index [(SHI) grams DW per edible gram DW total shoot], and yield-efficiency rate [(YER) grams DW edible per square meter per day per grams DW nonedible]. Cowpeas were grown in a greenhouse for leaf-only harvest at 14, 28, 42, 56, 84, or 99 plants/m2 and were harvested 20, 30, 40, or 50 days after planting (DAP). Shoot and edible dry weights increased as plant density and time to harvest increased. A maximum of 1189 g shoot DW/m2 and 594 g edible DW/m2 were achieved at an estimated plant density of 85 plants/m2 and harvest 50 DAP. EYR also increased as plant density and time to harvest increased. An EYR of 11 g m-2 day-1 was predicted to occur at 86 plants/m2 and harvest 50 DAP. SHI and YER were not affected by plant density. However, the highest values of SHI (64%) and YER (1.3 g m-2 day-1 g-1) were attained when cowpeas were harvested 20 DAP. The average fat and ash contents [dry-weight basis (dwb)] of harvested leaves remained constant regardless of harvest time. Average protein content increased from 25% DW at 30 DAP to 45% DW at 50 DAP. Carbohydrate content declined from 50% DW at 30 DAP to 45% DW at 50 DAP. Total dietary fiber content (dwb) of the leaves increased from 19% to 26% as time to harvest increased from 20 to 50 days.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.31.2.193 pubmed: 11539398 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cary-Mitchell/publication/11807846_Varying_Plant_Density_and...
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Interior plants: their influence on airborne microbes inside energy-efficient buildings

1996

B.C. Wolverton, J.D. Wolverton

publication: Journal of the Mississippi Academy of Sciences

Abstract

Recent studies have shown that low-light requiring houseplants can influence removal rates of indoor air polluting chemicals from sealed chambers. This study addresses the influence of large numbers of houseplants on airborne microbial populations inside energy-efficient buildings. Portions of a tightly sealed, energy-efficient home located in South Mississippi served as 'real world' test chambers. A plant-filled sunroom and an adjacent living room were tested in 2 studies, each 3 months in duration and at different seasons of the year. A plant-free bedroom, located in another section of the home, served as a control. Although humidity levels in the plant filled sunroom were higher than in the plant-free bedroom, airborne microbial populations were found to be >50% higher in the plant-free bedroom. These findings indicate that houseplants are influencing the microbe populations in air where large numbers of plants are grown. This is a significant finding because it indicates that large quantities of houseplants may be used to increase humidity levels and suppress levels of fungal spores and other airborne microbes inside energy-efficient buildings, while reducing air polluting substances.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19960306910
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Effect of dissolved oxygen concentration on lettuce growth in floating hydroponics

1996

E. Goto,A.J. Both,L.D. Albright,R.W. Langhans,A.R. Leed

publication: Acta horticulturae

Abstract

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L., cv. Ostinata) growth experiments were carried out to study the effect of dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration on plant growth in a floating hydroponic system. Pure O2 and N2 gas were supplied to the hydroponic system for precise DO control. This system made it easy to increase the DO concentration beyond the maximum (or saturation) concentration possible when bubbling air into water. Eleven day old lettuce seedlings were grown for 24 days under various DO concentrations: sub-saturated, saturated, and super-saturated. There was no significant difference in fresh weight, shoot and root dry weights among the DO concentrations: 2.1 (25% of saturated at 24 degrees C), 4.2 (50%), 8.4 (saturated), and 16.8 (200%) mg/L. The critical DO concentration for vigorous lettuce growth was considered to be lower than 2.1 mg/L. Neither root damage nor delay of shoot growth was observed at any of the studied DO concentrations.
doi: 10.17660/actahortic.1996.440.36 pubmed: 11541573 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/440/440_36.htm
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Growth responses of hydroponically grown sweetpotato tolerant and intolerant of a continuous daylight period

1996

D.G. Mortley, P.A. Loretan, W.A. Hill, C.K. Bonsi, C.E. Morris

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Two sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) genotypes (cv. Georgia Jet and the breeding clone TI-155) were grown at 12-, 15-, 18- or 21-h light/12-, 9-, 6-, 3-h dark cycles, respectively, to evaluate their growth and elemental concentration responses to duration and amount of daily lighting. Vine cuttings (15 cm long) of both genotypes were grown in rectangular nutrient film technique channels for 120 days. Conditions were as follows: photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) mean 427 µmol m-2 s-1, 28°C day/22° night air cycle and 70±5% RH. The nutrient solution used was a modified half-strength Hoagland's solution. Storage root count per plant and per unit area, yield (g m-2 day-1) and harvest index increased, while production efficiency (g/mol) decreased with increasing daily PPF. Stomatal conductance for both genotypes declined with increased daily PPF. Leaves were smallest for both genotypes at the 21-h light period, while storage root yield declined as leaf area index increased. Except for a linear decrease in leaf N and K with increasing light period, elemental concentration was not significantly influenced.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19960705500
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Ecological Engineering

1996

Yuan Li,Yanjing Cao,Hangang Liu,Meng Li,Boyu Xuan,Xiaoyu Zhang,Xiaoping Gao,Jian Zhao

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Volatile organic compounds detected in the atmosphere of NASA’s Biomass Production Chamber

1996

J.H. Batten,G.W. Stutte,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Atmospheres of enclosed environments in which 20 m2 stands of wheat, potato, and lettuce were grown were characterized and quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A large number (in excess of 90) of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were identified in the chambers. Twenty eight VOC's were assumed to be of biogenic origin for these were not found in the chamber atmosphere when air samples were analyzed in the absence of plants. Some of the compounds found were unique to a single crop. For example, only 35% of the biogenic compounds detected in the wheat atmosphere were unique to wheat, while 36% were unique to potato and 26% were unique to lettuce. The number of compounds detected in the wheat (20 compounds) atmosphere was greater than that of potato (11) and lettuce (15) and concentration levels of biogenic and non-biogenic VOC's were similar.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00876-g pubmed: 11538796 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500876G
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Growth and stomatal behavior of hydroponically cultured potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) at elevated and super-elevated CO2

1996

C.L. Mackowiak,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of Plant Physiology

Abstract

Potato cultivars Denali and Norland were grown in a controlled environment under low irradiance and CO2 partial pressures of 50, 100, 500, and 1000 Pa. The highest CO2 partial pressures, 500 and 1000 Pa, reduced tuber yield when compared to 100 Pa CO2. Upper canopy stomatal conductance was greatest at the higher CO2 partial pressures (500 and 1000 Pa) for both cultivars, and conductance of Denali was consistently higher than Norland. Stomatal conductance tended to decline sooner with plant age at 50 and 100 Pa CO2 than at 500 and 1000 Pa. Water uptake was also greatest at the higher CO2 partial pressures, which resulted in lowest water-use efficiencies at 500 and 1000 Pa. These observations suggest that stomatal function under very high CO2 partial pressures (500–1000 Pa) does not follow known patterns observed at moderate partial pressures (50–100 Pa). Although there is little concern about CO2 partial pressures reaching extreme levels in the natural environment, this information should be useful for controlled environments or space life support systems (e.g. space vehicles or habitats), where CO2 partial pressures of 500–1000 Pa are common.
doi: 10.1016/S0176-1617(96)80196-9 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161796801969
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The Spacelab-Mir-1 “Greenhouse-2” experiment

1996

G.E. Bingham,F.B. Salisbury,W.F. Campbell,J.G. Carman,D.L. Bubenheim,B. Yendler,V.N. Sytchev,Yu.A. Berkovitch,M.A. Levinskikh,I.G. Podolsky

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The Spacelab-Mir-1 (SLM-1) mission is the first docking of the Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-71) with the Orbital Station Mir in June 1995. The SLM-1 “Greenhouse-2” experiment will utilize the Russian-Bulgarian-developed plant growth unit (Svet). “Greenhouse-2” will include two plantings (1) designed to test the capability of Svet to grow a crop of Superdwarf wheat from seed to seed, and (2) to provide green plant material for post-flight analysis. Protocols, procedures, and equipment for the experiment have been developed by the US-Russian science team. “Greenhouse-2” will also provide the first orbital test of a new Svet Instrumentation System (SIS) developed by Utah State University to provide near real time data on plant environmental parameters and gas-exchange rates. SIS supplements the Svet control and monitoring system with additional sensors for substrate moisture, air temperature, IR leaf temperature, light, oxygen, pressure, humidity, and carbon-dioxide. SIS provides the capability to monitor canopy transpiration and net assimilation of the plants growing in each vegetation unit (root zone) by enclosing the canopy in separate, retractable, ventilated leaf chambers. Six times during the seed-to-seed experiment, plant samples will be collected, leaf area measured, and plant parts fixed and/or dried for ground analysis. A second planting initiated 30 days before the arrival of a U.S. Shuttle [originally planned to be STS-71] is designed to provide green material at the vegetative development stage for ground analysis. [As this paper is being edited, the experiment has been delayed until after the arrival of STS-71.]
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00881-E link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500881E
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A role for the diazotrophic cyanobacterium, Cyanothece sp. Strain ATCC 51142, in nitrogen cycling for CELSS applications

1996

M.A. Schneegurt, L.A. Sherman

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Simple calculations show that fixed nitrogen regeneration in a CELSS may not be as efficient as stowage and resupply of fixed nitrogen compounds. However, fixed nitrogen regeneration may be important for the sustainability and safety of a deployed CELSS. Cyanothece sp. strain ATCC 51142, a unicellular, aerobic, diazotrophic cyanobacterium, with high growth rates and a robust metabolism, is a reasonable candidate organism for a biological, fixed nitrogen regeneration system. In addition, Cyanothece sp. cultures may be used to balance gas exchange ratio imparities between plants and humans. The regeneration of fixed nitrogen compounds by cyanobacterial cultures was examined in the context of a broad computer model/simulation (called CELSS-3D). When cyanothece sp. cultures were used to balance gas exchange imparities, the biomass harvested could supply as much as half of the total fixed nitrogen needed for plant biomass production.
pubmed: 11539160 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1996/00000003/f0020001/art00009
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Germination and growth of spinach under hypobaric conditions

1996

K. Iwabuchi, E. Goto, T. Takakura

publication: Environment Control in Biology

Abstract

In a plant production facility designed for human life support in vacuum space, lowering total air pressures within the facilities is expected to have the engineering advantage of reducing the construction cost. In this study, low total pressure treatments were applied to spinach over the entire production period from seeding to harvest. An environment control system was constructed to grow plants under low total pressure for long durations. Spinach seeds were directly sowed on a hydroponic plant bed placed in a reduced-pressure growth chamber. The total and O2 partial pressures within the growth chamber were set at 101 and 21 kPa, 25 and 21 kPa, and 25 and 10 kPa, respectively. The CO2 partial pressure was constant at 40 Pa. At 21 kPa of O2 partial pressure, there were no significant differences in fresh and dry weights, leaf area, and shoot length of spinach at harvest between 101 and 25 kPa of total air pressure. At 10 kPa of O2 partial pressure and 25 kPa of total pressure, the dry weight was not affected, but the leaf area and shoot length at harvest were smaller than those at 21 kPa of O2. According to these results, it was evident that the entire cultivation of spinach from seeding to harvest could be carried out at one-fourth atmospheric pressure when the O2 and CO2 partial pressures are at atmospheric levels.
doi: 10.2525/ecb1963.34.169 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ecb1963/34/3/34_3_169/_article/-char/ja/
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NASA's Biomass Production Chamber: A testbed for bioregenerative life support studies

1996

R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,G.W. Stutte,J.C. Sager,N.C. Yorio,L.M. Ruffe,R.E. Fortson,T.W. Dreschel,W.M. Knott,K.A. Corey

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) located at Kennedy Space Center, FL, USA provides a large (20 m2 area, 113 m3 vol.), closed environment for crop growth tests for NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) program. Since the summer of 1988, the chamber has operated on a near-continuous basis (over 1200 days) without any major failures (excluding temporary power losses). During this time, five crops of wheat (64–86 days each), three crops of soybean (90 to 97 days), five crops of lettuce (28–30 days), and four crops of potato (90 to 105 days) were grown, producing 481 kg of dry plant biomass, 196 kg edible biomass, 540 kg of oxygen, 94,700 kg of condensed water, and fixing 739 kg of carbon dioxide. Results indicate that total biomass yields were close to expected values for the given light input, but edible biomass yields and harvest indices were slightly lower than expected. Stand photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and nutrient uptake rates were monitored throughout growth and development of the different crops, along with the build-up of ethylene and other volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere. Data were also gathered on system hardware maintenance and repair, as well as person-hours required for chamber operation. Future tests will include long-term crop production studies, tests in which nutrients from waste treatment systems will be used to grow new crops, and multi-species tests.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00880-N link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500880N
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Optimization of moisture content for wheat seedling germination in a cellulose acetate medium for a space flight experiment

1996

C.F. Johnson,T.W. Dreschel,C.S. Brown,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The Porous Tube Plant Nutrient Delivery System (PTPNDS), a hydrophilic, microporous ceramic tube hydroponic system designed for microgravity, will be tested in a middeck locker of the Space Shuttle. The flight experiment will focus on hardware operation and assess its ability to support seed germination and early seedling growth in microgravity. The water controlling system of the PTPNDS hardware has been successfully tested during the parabolic flight of the KC-135. One challenge to the development of the space flight experiment was to devise a method of holding seeds to the cylindrical porous tube. The seed-holder must provide water and air to the seed, absorb water from the porous tube, withstand sterilization, provide a clear path for shoots and roots to emerge, and be composed of flight qualified materials. In preparation for the flight experiment, a wheat seed-holder has been designed that utilizes a cellulose acetate plug to facilitate imbibition and to hold the wheat seeds in contact with the porous tube in the correct orientation during the vibration of launch and the microgravity environment of orbit. Germination and growth studies with wheat at a range of temperatures showed that optimal moisture was 78% (by weight) in the cellulose acetate seed holders. These and other design considerations are discussed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00883-g pubmed: 11538804 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500883G
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Greenhouse spinach production in a NFT system

1996

A.J. Both,A.R. Leed,E. Goto,L.D. Albright,R.W. Langhans

publication: Acta horticulturae

Abstract

Primed spinach (Spinacia oleracea L., cv. Nordic) seed was started in rockwool slabs in a growth room for eight days before the seedlings were transplanted into a controlled environment greenhouse equipped with five identical, but separate, NFT systems. The day and night temperatures in the greenhouse were maintained at 24 and 18 degrees C, respectively, with the daytime starting at 06:00 and ending at 22:00 hr. A photoperiod of 16 hrs was maintained, to prevent early bolting, and different target daily integrated light levels (PPF, in mol m-2 d-1) were studied to observe dry weight production. HPS lamps were used as the supplemental light source. Thirty-three days after seeding a final harvest was performed. Using the expolinear growth equation, dry weight production can be predicted based solely on target daily integrated light levels. Total chlorine residuals in the nutrient solution higher than 1 ppm were observed to be toxic. Root disease (rot) in the plant crown was found to be caused by Fusarium. Several remedies, including three biofungicides and potassium silicate, were tried but none proved to be consistently successful.
doi: 10.17660/actahortic.1996.440.33 pubmed: 11541569 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/440/440_33.htm
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An introduction to the nitrogen dynamics in controlled systems workshop. Life support and nitrogen: NASA's interest in nitrogen cycling

1996

R.D. MacElroy, D.T. Smernoff

pubmed: 11539153
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A system and methodology for the measurement of volatile organic compounds produced by hydroponic lettuce in a controlled environment

1996

C.S. Charron, D.J. Cantliffe, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

A system and methodology were developed for the nondestructive qualitative and quantitative analysis of volatile emissions from hydroponically grown 'Waldmann's Green' leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), photoperiod, and temperature were automatically controlled and monitored in a growth chamber modified for the collection of plant volatiles. The lipoxygenase pathway products (Z)-3-hexenal, (Z)-3-hexenol, and (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate were emitted by lettuce plants after the transition from the light period to the dark period. The volatile collection system developed in this study enabled measurements of volatiles emitted by intact plants, from planting to harvest, under controlled environmental conditions.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.121.3.483 pubmed: 11539353 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ray-Wheeler-2/publication/11807801_A_System_and_Methodology_...
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Growth, yield, and CO2 exchange rate of rice plants cultivated under a microwave-powered lamp

1996

Y. Kitaya, H. Isawa, T. Kozai

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

Growth characteristics and grain yield of rice (Oriza sativa L.) and CO2 exchange rate of the rice plants at photo- and dark periods were examined in a plant growth chamber installed with a microwave-powered lamp. Photosynthetic photon flux density was about 1 mmol m-2 S-1 at the plant canopy level. The grain yield per unit cultivation area was 0.7kg m-2 96 days after seeding. The CO2 exchange rate (the net photosynthetic rate) at the photoperiod was 3.5mg CO2m-2s-1 43 days after seeding and then decreased to 0.5mg CO2 m-2 s-1 at the harvest time. The microwave-powered lamp is useful to cultivate rice which requires high light intensity, with less electrical energy and less thermal radiation.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku1989.8.2_1 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku1989/8/2/8_2_1/_article/-char/en
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Carbon dioxide exchange of lettuce plants under hypobaric conditions

1996

K.A. Corey,M.E. Bates,S.L. Adams

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Growth of plants in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) may involve the use of hypobaric pressures enabling lower mass requirements for atmospheres and possible enhancement of crop productivity. A controlled environment plant growth chamber with hypobaric capability designed and built at Ames Research Center was used to determine if reduced pressures influence the rates of photosynthesis (Ps) and dark respiration (DR) of hydroponically grown lettuce plants. The chamber, referred to as a plant volatiles chamber (PVC), has a growing area of about 0.2 m2, a total gas volume of about 0.7 m3, and a leak rate at 50 kPa of <0.1%/day. When the pressure in the chamber was reduced from ambient to 51 kPa, the rate of net Ps increased by 25% and the rate of DR decreased by 40%. The rate of Ps increased linearly with decreasing pressure. There was a greater effect of reduced pressure at 41 Pa CO2 than at 81 Pa CO2. This is consistent with reports showing greater inhibition of photorespiration (Pr) in reduced O2 at low CO2 concentrations. When the partial pressure of O2 was held constant but the total pressure was varied between 51 and 101 kPa, the rate of CO2 uptake was nearly constant, suggesting that low pressure enhancement of Ps may be mainly attributable to lowered partial pressure of O2 and the accompanying reduction in Pr. The effects of lowered partial pressure of O2 on Ps and DR could result in substantial increases in the rates of biomass production, enabling rapid throughput of crops or allowing flexibility in the use of mass and energy resources for a CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00820-5 pubmed: 11538976 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500888L
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Nutrient management effects on sweetpotato genotypes under controlled environment

1996

P.P. David,C.K. Bonsi,A.A. Trotman,D.Z. Douglas

publication: Acta horticulturae

Abstract

Sweetpotato is one of several crops recommended by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for bioregenerative life support studies. One of the objectives of the Tuskegee University NASA Center is to optimize growth conditions for adaptability of sweetpotatoes for closed bioregenerative systems. The role of nutrient solution management as it impacts yield has been one of the major thrusts in these studies. Nutrient solution management protocol currently used consists of a modified half Hoagland solution that is changed at 14-day intervals. Reservoirs are refilled with deionized water if the volume of the nutrient solution was reduced to 8 liters or less before the time of solution change. There is the need to recycle and replenish nutrient solution during crop growth, rather than discard at 14 day intervals as previously done, in order to reduce waste. Experiments were conducted in an environmental growth room to examine the effects of container size on the growth of several sweetpotato genotypes grown under a nutrient replenishment protocol. Plants were grown from vine cuttings of 15cm length and were planted in 0.15 x 0.15 x 1.2m growth channels using a closed nutrient film technique system. Nutrient was supplied in a modified half strength Hoagland's solution with a 1:2.4 N:K ratio. Nutrient replenishment protocol consisted of daily water replenishment to a constant volume of 30.4 liters in the small containers and 273.6 liters in the large container. Nutrients were replenished as needed when the EC of the nutrient solution fell below 1200 mhos/cm. The experimental design used was a split-plot with the main plot being container size and genotypes as the subplot. Nine sweetpotato genotypes were evaluated. Results showed no effect of nutrient solution container size on storage root yield, foliage fresh and dry mass, leaf area or vine length. However, plants grown using the large nutrient solution container accumulated more storage root dry mass than those with the small containers. Although plants grown with the smaller containers showed greater water uptake, plant nutrient uptake was lower than with the larger container. All genotypes evaluated showed variation in their responses to all parameters measured.
doi: 10.17660/actahortic.1996.440.12 pubmed: 11541588 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/440/440_12.htm
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Excess nutrients in hydroponic solutions alter nutrient content of rice, wheat, and potato

1996

J.D. McKeehen,C.A. Mitchell,R.M. Wheeler,B. Bugbee,S.S. Nielsen

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Environment has significant effects on the nutrient content of field-grown crop plants. Little is known, however, about compositional changes caused by controlled environments in which plants receive only artificial radiation and soilless, hydroponic culture. This knowledge is essential for developing a safe, nutritious diet in a Controlled Ecological Life-Support System (CELSS). Three crops that are candidates for inclusion in a CELSS (rice, wheat, and white potato) were grown both in the field and in controlled environments where the hydroponic nutrient solution, photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), and CO2 level were manipulated to achieve rapid growth rates. Plants were harvested at maturity, separated into discrete parts, and dried prior to analysis. Plant materials were analyzed for proximate composition (protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrate), total nitrogen (N), nitrate, minerals, and amino-acid composition. The effect of environment on nutrient content varied by crop and plant part. Total N and nonprotein N (NPN) contents of plant biomass generally increased under controlled-environment conditions compared to field conditions, especially for leafy plant parts and roots. Nitrate levels were increased in hydroponically-grown vegetative tissues, but nitrate was excluded from grains and tubers. Mineral content changes in plant tissue included increased phosphorus and decreased levels of certain micronutrient elements under controlled-environment conditions. These findings suggest that cultivar selection, genetic manipulation, and environmental control could be important to obtain highly nutritious biomass in a CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00863-a pubmed: 11538817 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500863A
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Mass transfer in the biological fast lane: High CO2 and a shallow root zone

1996

D. Smart, K. Ritchie, B. Bugbee

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Elevated atmospheric CO2, which is common in regenerative systems, increases photosynthesis, plant growth, and root respiration, which increases the O2 demand in the root zone. Closed systems must make efficient use of volume and thus have shallow root zones. The root density and O2 demand in these artificial systems is 10 to 100 times higher than in field environments. Rapid hydroponic flow rates supply O2 to the root zone, but anaerobic microsites occur because of nonuniform flow rates. Our measurements suggest that, probably because of low O2 in such microsites, up to 30% of the nitrogen can volatilize from denitrification. We improved nitrogen recovery to about 85% by increasing the solution flow rate and reducing the nitrate concentration in solution to 100 micromoles.
pubmed: 11539159 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1996/00000003/f0020001/art00008
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Comparison of aerobically-treated and untreated crop residue as a source of recycled nutrients in a recirculating hydroponic system

1996

C.L. Mackowiak,J.L. Garland,R.F. Strayer,B.W. Finger,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

This study compared the growth of potato plants on nutrients recycled from inedible potato biomass. Plants were grown for 105 days in recirculating, thin-film hydroponic systems containing four separate nutrient solution treatments: 1) modified half-strength Hoagland's (control), 2) liquid effluent from a bioreactor containing inedible potato biomass, 3) filtered (0.2 μm) effluent, and 4) the water soluble fraction of inedible potato biomass (leachate). Approximately 50% of the total nutrient requirement in treatments 2–4 were provided (recycled) from the potato biomass. Leachate had an inhibitory effect on leaf conductance, photosynthetic rate, and growth (50% reduction in plant height and 60% reduction in tuber yield). Plants grown on bioreactor effluent (filtered or unfiltered) were similar to the control plants. These results indicated that rapidly degraded, water soluble organic material contained in the inedible biomass, i.e., material in leachate, brought about phytotoxicity in the hydroponic culture of potato. Recalcitrant, water soluble organic material accumulated in all nutrient recycling treatments (650% increase after 105 days), but no increase in rhizosphere microbial numbers was observed.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00817-X link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500817X
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Photosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism in microgravity

1996

C.S. Brown, B.C. Tripathy, G.W. Stutte

publication: Plants in space biology

Partial Abstract

Photosynthesis and Carbohydrate Metabolism in Microgravity | CiNii Research Plants in Space Biology Plants in Space Biology 127-134, 1996 ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1573950399839737216
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Earth benefits of interdisciplinary CELSS-related research by the NSCORT in bioregenerative life support

1996

C. Mitchell,L. Sherman,S. Nielsen,P. Nelson,P. Trumbo,T. Hodges,P. Hasegawa,R. Bressan,M. Ladisch,D. Auslander

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Earth benefits of research from the NSCORT in Bioregenerative Life Support will include the following: development of active control mechanisms for light, CO2, and temperature to maximize photosynthesis of crop plants during important phases of crop development; automation of crop culture systems; creation of novel culture systems for optimum productivity; creation of value-added crops with superior nutritional, yield, and waste-process characteristics; environmental control of food and toxicant composition of crops; new process technologies and novel food products for safe, nutritious, palatable vegetarian diets; creation of menus for healthful vegetarian diets with psychological acceptability; enzymatic procedures to degrade recalcitrant crop residues occurring in municipal waste; control-system strategies to ensure sustainabilty of a CELSS that will enable management of diverse complex systems on Earth.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00858-c pubmed: 11538802 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500858C
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NASA’s advanced life support systems human rated test facility

1996

D.L. Henninger,T.O. Tri,N.J.C. Packham

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Future NASA missions to explore the solar system will be long-duration missions, requiring human life support systems which must operate with very high reliability over long periods of time. Such systems must be highly regenerative, requiring minimum resupply, to enable the crews to be largely self-sufficient. These regenerative life support systems will use a combination of higher plants, microorganisms, and physicochemical processes to recycle air and water, produce food, and process wastes. A key step in the development of these systems is establishment of a human-rated test facility specifically tailored to evaluation of closed, regenerative life supports systems--one in which long-duration, large-scale testing involving human test crews can be performed. Construction of such a facility, the Advanced Life Support Program's (ALS) Human-Rated Test Facility (HRTF), has begun at NASA's Johnson Space Center, and definition of systems and development of initial outfitting concepts for the facility are underway. This paper will provide an overview of the HRTF project plan, an explanation of baseline configurations, and descriptive illustrations of facility outfitting concepts.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00812-s pubmed: 11538967 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500812S
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Early Human Testing Initiative Phase I Final Report"

1996

M. Edeen, D.J. Barta

publication: unknown

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[citation] Gas balance in a plant-based CELSS

1996

R.M. Wheeler

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Johnson Space Center’s regenerative life support systems test bed

1996

D.J. Barta,D.L. Henninger

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The Regenerative Life Support Systems (RLSS) Test Bed at NASA's Johnson Space Center is an atmospherically closed, controlled environment facility for human testing of regenerative life support systems using higher plants in conjunction with physicochemical life support systems. The facility supports NASA's Advanced Life Support (ALS) Program. The facility is comprised of two large scale plant growth chambers, each with approximately 11 m2 growing area. The root zone in each chamber is configurable for hydroponic or solid media plant culture systems. One of the two chambers, the Variable Pressure Growth Chamber (VPGC), is capable of operating at lower atmospheric pressures to evaluate a range of environments that may be used in a planetary surface habitat; the other chamber, the Ambient Pressure Growth Chamber (APGC) operates at ambient atmospheric pressure. The air lock of the VPGC is currently being outfitted for short duration (1 to 15 day) human habitation at ambient pressures. Testing with and without human subjects will focus on 1) integration of biological and physicochemical air and water revitalization systems; 2) effect of atmospheric pressure on system performance; 3) planetary resource utilization for ALS systems, in which solid substrates (simulated planetary soils or manufactured soils) are used in selected crop growth studies; 4) environmental microbiology and toxicology; 5) monitoring and control strategies; and 6) plant growth systems design. Included are descriptions of the overall design of the test facility, including discussions of the atmospheric conditioning, thermal control, lighting, and nutrient delivery systems.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00811-r pubmed: 11538966 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500811R
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Survival of potentially pathogenic human-associated bacteria in the rhizosphere of hydroponically grown wheat

1996

A. Morales, J.L. Garland, D.V. Lim

publication: FEMS microbiology ecology

Abstract

Plants may serve as reservoirs for human-associated bacteria (H-AB) in long-term space missions containing bioregenerative life support systems. The current study examined the abilities of five human-associated potential pathogens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas cepacia, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes and Escherichia coli, to colonize and grow in the rhizosphere of hydroponically grown wheat, a candidate crop for life support. All of these bacteria have been recovered from past NASA missions and present potential problems for future missions. The abilities of these organisms to adhere to the roots of axenic five-day-old wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Yecora rojo) were evaluated by enumeration of the attached organisms after a one hour incubation of roots in a suspension (approximately 10(8) cfu ml-1) of the H-AB. Results showed that a greater percentage of P. aeruginosa cells adhered to the wheat roots than the other four H-AB. Similarly incubated seedlings were also grown under attempted axenic conditions for seven days to examine the potential of each organism to proliferate in the rhizosphere (root colonization capacity). P. cepacia and P. aerogiunosa showed considerable growth, E. coli and S. aureus showed no significant growth, and S. pyogenes died off in the wheat rhizosphere. Studies examining the effects of competition on the survival of these microorganisms indicated that P. aeruginosa was the only organism that survived in the rhizosphere of hydroponically grown wheat in the presence of different levels of microbial competition.
doi: 10.1016/0168-6496(96)00020-7 pubmed: 11539850 link: https://academic.oup.com/femsec/article-abstract/20/3/155/478774
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A system for studying the gas exchange of whole plants at subambient total gas pressure

1996

R.S. Stahl, B.D. Etter

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

A whole-plant gas exchange system that has been designed and constructed to study the feasibility of growing plants at subambient total gas pressures is described. This system will allow for the study of whole-plant gas exchange over the entire life cycle of a plant. The system also will allow for the regulation of atmospheric composition by providing control over the amount of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in a chamber atmosphere. The chamber's environmental performance is discussed in relation to selected design requirements. This system is a major technological advance over other systems used to study low-pressure effects on plant growth.
pubmed: 11539156 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1996/00000003/f0020001/art00002
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Reliability of biological systems based on CBF data

1996

Alan Drysdale,Russ Fortson,Gary Stutte,Cheryl Mackowiak,John Sager,Ray Wheeler

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

The reliability of biological life support systems, critical for long-duration human space missions, has been questioned. We propose that properly engineered biological components are inherently reliable, and support this view with data from nine years of operation of the CELSS Breadboard Facility (CBF) at Kennedy Space Center. Reliability problems in a bioregenerative life support system will generally be caused by support system failures, they will generally not be catastrophic, and the crew will have ample time to respond. Thus, biological system reliability can be good, and the impact of low component reliability would generally be to increase system cost rather than to risk mission failure.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44725562
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Spectral composition of light and plant productivity

1996

A.A. Tikhomirov

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Among other problems the Institute of Biophysics is working on the development of physiological and fundamental aspects of intensive light cultivation of higher plants. These technologies can be used in life support systems for stationary space station such as a Lunar base, a planetary base or a large orbital station. The source of energy may be the Sun or a nuclear reactor. In certain conditions, such sources of energy allow the use of a very broad range of irradiance of plants, in particular in the light energy range up to 2-3 times the solar energy (up to 100-1200 W/m2 PAR). Our Institute was the first to show that under such a high irradiance, some plants (radish, wheat, for example) can actively photosynthesize and exhibit high productivity on a sowing area basis. These results were later confirmed in the laboratory of Prof. Salisbury (USA).
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00887-k pubmed: 11538808 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11538808
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Characterizing photosynthesis and transpiration of plant communities in controlled environments

1996

O. Monje,B. Bugbee

publication: International Symposium on Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems

Abstract

CO2 and water vapor fluxes of hydroponically grown wheat and soybean canopies were measured continuously in several environments with an open gas exchange system. Canopy CO2 fluxes reflect the photosynthetic efficiency of a plant community, and provide a record of plant growth and health. There were significant diurnal fluctuations in root and shoot CO2 fluxes, and in shoot water vapor fluxes. Canopy stomatal conductance (Gc) to water vapor was calculated from simultaneous measurements of canopy temperature (Tcan) and transpiration rates (Tr). Tr in the dark was substantial, and there were large diurnal fluctuations in both Gc and Tr. Canopy net photosynthesis (Pnet), Tr, and Gc increased with increasing net radiation. Gc increased with Tr, suggesting that the stomata of plants in controlled environments (CEs) behave differently from field-grown plants. A transpiration model based on measurements of Gc was developed for CEs. The model accurately predicted Tr from a soybean canopy.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1996.440.22 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/440/440_22.htm
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A re-evaluation of plant lighting for a bioregenerative life support system on the moon

1996

Alan Drysdale,John Sager

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Plant lighting will be a significant fraction of the overall costs of a bioregenerative life support system on the Moon. Equivalent mass (EM) for lighting can exceed 35% of the system total with all-electrical lighting. In this paper, variation of cost factors related to lighting is addressed for various options including fluorescent, high-pressure sodium, LED, and microwave lamps. An attempt is also made to quantify the cost of using sunlight, considering collectors, optical fibers, and diffusers. The results show that use of sunlight is important in reducing cost for a lunar base because of the difficulty of heat rejection with electrical lighting during the lunar day.
doi: 10.4271/961557 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/961557/
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Dissolution of a lunar basalt stimulant as affected by pH and organic ions

1996

G.W. Easterwood, J.J. Street, J.B. Sartain, D.H. Hubbell, H.A. Robitaille

publication: Geoderma

Abstract

The dissolution of a lunar simulant (MLS-1) basalt was examined at 298 K; pH 3, 5, and 7; and in the presence of citrate and oxalate anions. The basalt was mined from an abandoned quarry in Duluth, Minnesota. The relative abundance of minerals in the basalt are plagioclase > pyroxene > olivine > ilmenite. The chemical composition and mineralogy of the basalt most closely resembles Apollo 11 Mare soil. For most of the experiments the order of major ion release (Mg, Ca, Fe, Al, and Si) from the MLS-1 basalt was controlled by the solubility of its mineral components. The amount of major ion release followed the order Fe ≈ Mg > Si > Al > Ca. Deviations in this release order were related to the effect of the treatments on the quantity of MLS-1 basalt dissolved and the precipitation of secondary minerals. For the pH experiments dissolution followed a two-stage process. The first stage was characterized by a rapid rate of release of the major ions into solution, followed by a slower, more linear rate during the second stage. Rate coefficients were calculated from the linear portions of the rate curves and were inversely related to pH. The first stage was attributed to the dissolution of ultrafine particles created during the sample grinding process. During the second stage, dissolution occurred on the larger mineral surfaces, at higher energy sites (i.e. dislocations, twinning planes, fluid inclusions, etc). For the organic anion experiments, dissolution followed a one-stage parabolic process. Dissolution was greater in the presence of the citrate anion compared to the oxalate anion and decreased with a decrease in concentration. It is proposed that the organic anions accelerate the dissolution of the MLS-1 basalt through chemisorption and subsequent disruption of metal-oxygen bonds. The rate-limiting step of the reaction involves the diffusion of the cation-organic complex formed at the mineral surface.
doi: 10.1016/S0016-7061(96)00055-9 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016706196000559
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Growth and photosynthetic responses of wheat plants grown in space

1996

B. C. Tripathy,C. S. Brown,H. G. Levine,A. D. Krikorian

publication: Plant physiology

Abstract

Growth and photosynthesis of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv Super Dwarf) plants grown onboard the space shuttle Discovery for 10 d were examined. Compared to ground control plants, the shoot fresh weight of space-grown seedlings decreased by 25%. Postflight measurements of the O2 evolution/photosynthetic photon flux density response curves of leaf samples revealed that the CO2-saturated photosynthetic rate at saturating light intensities in space-grown plants declined 25% relative to the rate in ground control plants. The relative quantum yield of CO2-saturated photosynthetic O2 evolution measured at limiting light intensities was not significantly affected. In space-grown plants, the light compensation point of the leaves increased by 33%, which likely was due to an increase (27%) in leaf dark-respiration rates. Related experiments with thylakoids isolated from space-grown plants showed that the light-saturated photosynthetic electron transport rate from H2O through photosystems II and I was reduced by 28%. These results demonstrate that photosynthetic functions are affected by the microgravity environment.
doi: 10.1104/pp.110.3.801 pubmed: 8819868 link: https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article-abstract/110/3/801/6070081
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Elevated carbon dioxide influences yield and photosynthetic responses of hydroponically-grown sweetpotato

1996

D. Mortley, J. Hill, P. Loretan, C. Bonsi, W. Hill

publication: Acta horticulturae

Abstract

The response of 'TI-155' and 'Georgia Jet' sweetpotato cultivars to elevated CO2 concentrations of 400 (ambient), 750 and 1000 micromoles mol-1 were evaluated under controlled environment conditions using the nutrient film technique (NFT). Growth chamber conditions included photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 600 micromoles m-2 s-1, 14/10 light/dark period, and 70% +/- 5% RH. Plants were grown using a modified half-Hoagland nutrient solution with a pH range of 5.5-6.0 and an electrical conductivity of 0.12 S m-1. Gas exchange measurements were made using infrared gas analysis, an open-flow gas exchange system, and a controlled-climate cuvette. Photosynthetic (Pn) measurements were made at CO2 ranges of 50 to 1000 micromoles mol-1. Storage root yield/plant increased with CO2 up to 750 but declined at 1000 micromoles mol-1. Storage root dry matter (DM) and foliage dry weight increased with increasing CO2. Harvest index (HI) for both cultivars was highest at 750 micromoles mol-1. The PPF vs Pn curves were typical for C3 plants with saturation occurring at approximately 600 micromoles m-2 s-1. CO2 concentration did not significantly influence net Pn, transpiration, water-use-efficiency (WUE), and stomatal conductance. As measurement CO2 concentration increased, net Pn and WUE increased while transpiration and stomatal conductance decreased.
doi: 10.17660/actahortic.1996.440.6 pubmed: 11541577 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/440/440_6.htm
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MELISSA: A potential experiment for a precursor mission to the Moon

1996

Ch. Lasseur,W. Verstraete,J.B. Gros,G. Dubertret,F. Rogalla

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

MELISSA (Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative) has been conceived as a micro-organism based ecosystem intended as a tool for developing the technology for a future artificial ecosystem for long term space missions, as for example a lunar base. The driving element of MELISSA is the recovering of edible biomass from waste, CO2, and minerals with the use of sun light as energy source. In this publication, we focus our attention on the potential applications of MELISSA for a precursor mission to the Moon. We begin by a short review of the requirements for bioregenerative Life Support. We recall the concept of MELISSA and the theoretical and technical approaches of the study. We present the main results obtained since the beginning of this activity and taking into account the requirements of a mission to the Moon we propose a preliminary experiment based on the C cycle of the MELISSA loop.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(96)00097-x pubmed: 11543311 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779600097X
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Nitrogen dynamics in controlled systems: Meeting summary and conclusions

1996

D.T. Smernoff, G. Heyenga

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

This article summarizes the findings of a meeting held during September 1995, in Berkeley, CA. The purpose of the meeting was to provide NASA with a summary of the current data, theories, and hypotheses concerning the energetics, dynamics, and stability of nitrogen cycling in controlled systems. NASA’s interest stems from the development of advanced life support systems that must recycle and/or regenerate all life support materials. Nitrogen is an important element in biological systems; it undergoes a variety of transformations during both biotic and abiotic processes and, hence, an understanding of its dynamic changes in a closed system is critical to the design of efficient and reliable life support systems. This article reviews the meeting goals and objectives, summarizes the findings of the participants, and outlines future research needs.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1996/00000003/f0020001/art00013
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Concepts for food processing for lunar and planetary stations

1996

Jean Hunter,Alan Drysdale

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Most work on food production for long-duration missions has focused either on biomass production or nutritional modeling. Food processing, while not a basic life support technology, has the potential to significantly affect both life support system performance and the crew's quality of life.
Food processing includes the following tasks:
Separation of edible biomass (food) from inedible biomass Conversion of inedible biomass into foodstuffs (optional) Processing of foodstuffs into convenience ingredients or storable forms Storage management for locally produced foods and foods supplied from Earth Cooking and serving of fresh and stored foods Management of wastes and leftovers Cleaning and maintenance of equipment
Questions to be answered in design of a food processing system include:
What processing and labor-saving equipment is required, and with what capacity? How must earth-based processing technology be adapted for hypogravity? What storage environments are needed and what capacity is required? What are the tradeoffs between system costs and long term acceptability of the diet? How much crew time, mass of equipment and consumables and pressurized volume is minimally required for food processing? How can we best utilize unconventional food sources?
The authors review the requirements for food processing in an ALS and present a conceptual plan for processing locally produced edible biomass into a palatable and diverse menu, while minimizing equipment, consumables, mass and manpower requirements. Our chosen baseline was a 4-person lunar crew consuming a low-fat CELSS diet with 15% of calories supplied from Earth, but the concept may be adapted to any scenario with sufficient gravitational force (or centrifugal equivalent) to support conventional food processing techniques. Rather more changes would be needed for operation in a weightless environment.

doi: 10.4271/961415 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/961415/
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Value of fermented foods for lunar and planetary stations

1996

Jean Hunter,Keith Steinkraus,Alan Drysdale

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

Three significant problems with food supply in bioregenerative lifesupport systems are addressable through use of fermented foods. The quantity of inedible and maiginally edible biomass can be reduced; the hedonic quality of the diet can be enhanced; and food storage constraints can be relaxed due to the superior keeping qualities of fermented products.The authors have assessed potentially available materials and fermentation processes used worldwide, to identify promising food fermentations for use in lunar and planetary stations. Conversion of inedible biomass into acceptable food may include hydrolysis of waste biomass to produce sweeteners and acidulants; fermentation of physically fractionated biomass such as leaf protein isolates into acceptable foods; mushroom cultivation on agricultural residues; and conversion of volatile fatty acids produced during waste treatment into edible microbial biomass. Fermentation can also be used to upgrade edible biomass into more palatable and nourishing forms, products with greater culinary versatility or products valued chiefly for their flavor This effect will be particularly valuable as the proportion of food produced on-station rises from the expected 75-85% for early missions to near 100% closure in the long term. Crop scheduling requirements and crop or equipment failures in a bioregenerative system may result in availability of large excesses of perishable foodstuffs. Fermentations such as pickling provide a quick, low-cost means of preserving leafy and succulent crops unsuited to freezing or diying; they can also reduce the demand on cold-storage space for fteezable crops. The authors will present examples of food fermentations in each categoiy and will review the costs and benefits of using food fermentation processes on lunar and planetary stations.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44725530
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Plant growth and plant environmental monitoring equipment on the Mir Space Station: Experience and data from the greenhouse II experiment

1996

G. E. Bingham,S. B. Brown,F. B. Salisbury,W. F. Campbell,J. G. Carman,G. Jahns,D. Pletcher,D. B. Bubenheim,B. Yendler,V. Sytchev,M. A. Levinskikh,I. Podolski,T. Ivanova,P. Kostov,S. Sapunova

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

A three country effort (U.S., Russia, and Bulgaria) has upgraded the plant growth facilities on the Mir Space Station and used the new facility to grow wheat for 90 days. The Svet plantgrowth facility was reactivated and used in an initial experiment as part of the Shuttle/Mir program, August to November, 1995. The Svet system, used first to grow cabbage and radish during a 1990 experiment, was augmented by the addition of a U.S. developed Gas Exchange Measurement System (GEMS) that measures a range of environmental parameters plus transpiration, photosynthesis, and possibly respiration. Environmental parameters include cabin, chamber, root-zones, and leaf temperatures. Light levels, relative humidity, oxygen, and atmospheric pressure are also measured. High-accuracy water-vapor and carbon-dioxide concentrations and differences are measured using specially developed IRGA systems. An upgraded light bank, water control and measurement system, and Svet controller have been added for the 1996 segment of the experiment. The "Greenhouse 2" experiment began August 10, 1995, with seed planting on August 13. Plants grew until the launch of STS-74 in November, at which time they were harvested and dried and returned for analysis along with previously fixed and dried samples. The root module, light bank, and hard drive were also returned for detailed analysis. This paper details the capabilities of the equipment and describes the resulting environmental measurements observed during the 1995 experiment.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44725514
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Control of air revitalization using plants: Results of the early human testing initiative Phase I Test

1996

Marybeth A. Edeen,Jeffrey S. Dominick,Daniel J. Barta,Nigel J.C. Packham

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

The Early Human Testing Initiative (EHTI) Phase I Human Test, performed by the Crew and Thermal Systems Division at Johnson Space Center, demonstrated the ability of a crop of wheat to provide air revitalization for a human test subject for a 15-day period. The test demonstrated three different methods for control of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations for the human/plant system and obtained data on trace contaminants generated by both the human and plants during the test and their effects on each other. The crop was planted in the Variable Pressure Growth Chamber (VPGC) on July 24, 1995 and the test subject entered the adjoining airlock on day 17 of the wheat's growth cycle. The test subject stayed in the chamber for a total of 15 days, 1 hour and 20 minutes. Air was mixed between the plant chamber and airlock to provide oxygen to the test subject and carbon dioxide to the plants by an interchamber ventilation system. Three methods of control of the air revitalization system were demonstrated: 1) use of integrated physicochemical systems to complement biological air revitalization; 2) actively controlling the level of biological air revitalization by modulation of photosynthetic photon flux (light level) to control the rate of photosynthesis; and 3) passively controlling the level of biological air revitalization by limiting the amount of available carbon dioxide to control the rate of photosynthesis. The three methods of control were demonstrated sequentially during the 15-day test. The test successfully showed that plants could be used to support the air revitalization needs of a human test subject. The three different methods of controlling the human/plant system were successfully demonstrated, verifying that a biological system can be easily controlled to provide specific performance when desired. No negative impacts of the human on the plants or the plants on the human were observed during or after the test due to trace contaminants generated in the closed system, although the plants' generation of ethylene appeared to prevent pollination. This paper will describe the test operation and results.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44725570
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Instrumentation for plant health and growth in space

1996

Y.A. Berkovitch

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The present-day plant growth facilities ("greenhouses") for space should be equipped with monitors and controllers of ambient parameters within the chamber because spacecraft environmental variations can be unfavorable to plants. Moreover, little is known about the effects of spaceflight on the greenhouse and rooting media. Lack of information about spaceflight effects on plants necessitates supplying space greenhouses with automatic, non-invasive monitors of, e.g., gas exchange rate, water and nutrient ion uptake, plant mass, temperature and water content of leaves. However, introduction of an environmental or plant sensor into the monitoring system may be reasonable only if it is justified by quantitative evaluation of the influence of a measured parameter on productivity, efficacy of illumination, or some other index of greenhouse efficiency. The multivariate adaptive optimization in terrestrial phytotrons appears to be one of the best methods to assess environmental impacts on crops. Two modifications of greenhouses with the three-dimensional adaptive optimization of crop photosynthetic characteristics include: (1) irradiation, air temperature and carbon dioxide using a modified simplex algorithm; and (2) using irradiation, air temperature, and humidity with sensitivity algorithms with varying frequency of test exposures that have been experimentally developed. As a result, during some stages of plant ontogensis, the photosynthetic productivity of wheat, tomatoes, and Chinese cabbage in these systems was found to increase by a factor of 2-3.
doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(95)00872-c pubmed: 11538792 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027311779500872C
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Mineralization of wastes of human vital activity and plants in LSS

1997

Yu. A. Kudenko, I.A. Gribovskaya, R.A. Pavlenko

publication: European Space Agency …

Partial Abstract

Available methods for mineralizing wastes of human activity and inedible biomass of plants used in this country and abroad are divided into two types: dry mineralization at high temperatures up to 1270 K with subsequent partial dissolution of the ash and the other-wet oxidation by acids. In this case mineralization is performed at the temperature of 470-460 K and the pressure of 220-270 atmospheres in pure oxygen with the output of mineral solution and dissoluble sediments in the form of scale. The drawback of the former method is ...
link: https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=15021515
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Very high CO2 reduces photosynthesis, dark respiration and yield in wheat

1997

J REUVENI

publication: Annals of botany

Abstract

Although terrestrial CO2 concentrations, [CO2] are not expected to reach 1000 micromoles mol-1 for many decades, CO2 levels in closed systems such as growth chambers and glasshouses, can easily exceed this concentration. CO2 levels in life support systems in space can exceed 10000 micromoles mol-1 (1%). Here we studied the effect of six CO2 concentrations, from ambient up to 10000 micromoles mol-1, on seed yield, growth and gas exchange of two wheat cultivars (USU-Apogee and Veery-l0). Elevating [CO2] from 350 to 1000 micromoles mol-1 increased seed yield (by 33%), vegetative biomass (by 25%) and number of heads m-2 (by 34%) of wheat plants. Elevation of [CO2] from 1000 to 10000 micromoles mol-1 decreased seed yield (by 37%), harvest index (by 14%), mass per seed (by 9%) and number of seeds per head (by 29%). This very high [CO2] had a negligible, non-significant effect on vegetative biomass, number of heads m-2 and seed mass per head. A sharp decrease in seed yield, harvest index and seeds per head occurred by elevating [CO2] from 1000 to 2600 micromoles mol-1. Further elevation of [CO2] from 2600 to 10000 micromoles mol-1 caused a further but smaller decrease. The effect of CO2 on both wheat cultivars was similar for all growth parameters. Similarly there were no differences in the response to high [CO2] between wheat grown hydroponically in growth chambers under fluorescent lights and those grown in soilless media in a glasshouse under sunlight and high pressure sodium lamps. There was no correlation between high [CO2] and ethylene production by flag leaves or by wheat heads. Therefore, the reduction in seed set in wheat plants is not mediated by ethylene. The photosynthetic rate of whole wheat plants was 8% lower and dark respiration of the wheat heads 25% lower when exposed to 2600 micromoles mol-1 CO2 compared to ambient [CO2]. It is concluded that the reduction in the seed set can be mainly explained by the reduction in the dark respiration in wheat heads, when most of the respiration is functional and is needed for seed development.
doi: 10.1006/anbo.1997.0489 pubmed: 11541793 link: https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-abstract/80/4/539/2587731
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10 day flight performance of the plant generic bioprocessing apparatus (PGBA) plant growth facility aboard STS-77.

1997

Alex Hoehn,Dale J. Chamberlain,Sasha W. Forsyth,David S. Hanna,Paul Scovazzo,Michael B. Horner,Louis S. Stodieck,Paul Todd,A. Gerard Heyenga,Mark H. Kliss,Raymond Bula,Robert Yetka

publication: AIP Conference …

Partial Abstract

PGBA, a plant growth facility developed for space flight biotechnology research, successfully grew a total of 30 plants in a closed, multi-crop chamber for 10 days aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavor (STS-77). Artemisia annua, Catharanthus roseus, Pinus taeda, Spinacia oleracea and Trifolium repens were the five species studied during this mission. The primary mission objectives were to study the effects of microgravity for commercial and pharmaceutical production purposes. PGBA is a payload that represents a consortium of ...
doi: 10.1063/1.51916 link: https://pubs.aip.org/aip/acp/article-abstract/387/1/1005/811599
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Plant reproduction during spaceflight: Importance of the gaseous environment

1997

Mary E. Musgrave,Anxiu Kuang,Sharon W. Matthews

publication: Planta

Abstract

Plant reproduction is a complex developmental process likely to be disrupted by the unusual environmental conditions in orbital spacecraft. Previous results, reviewed herein, indicated difficulties in obtaining successful seed production in orbit, often relating to delayed plant development during the long-term growth necessary for a complete plant life cycle. Using short-duration exposure to spaceflight, we studied plant reproduction in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. during three flight experiments: CHROMEX-03 on STS-54 (6?d), CHROMEX-04 on STS-51 (10?d), and CHROMEX-05 on STS-68 (11?d). Plants were 13—14?d old (rosettes) at time of launch and initiated flowering shoots while in orbit. Plants were retrieved from the orbiters 2—3?h after landing and reproductive material was immediately processed for in-vivo observations of pollen viability, pollen tube growth, and esterase activity in the stigma, or fixed for later microscopy. Plants produced equal numbers of flowers to those controls growing on the ground but required special environmental conditions to permit fertilization and early seed development during spaceflight. In CHROMEX-03, plants were grown in closed plant growth chambers (PGCs), and male and female gametophyte development aborted at an early stage in the flight material. In CHROMEX-04, carbon dioxide enrichment was provided to the closed PGCs and reproductive development proceeded normally until the pollination stage, when there was an obstacle to pollen transfer in the spaceflight material. In CHROMEX-05, an air-exchange system was used to provide a slow purging of the PGCs with filtered cabin air. Under these conditions, the spaceflight plants apparently had reproductive development comparable to the ground controls, and immature seeds were produced. In every aspect examined, these seeds are similar to those produced by the ground control plants. The results suggest that if the physical environment around the plant under spaceflight conditions meets the physiological demands of the plant, then reproductive development can proceed normally on orbit.
doi: 10.1007/PL00008107 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/PL00008107
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Spectral quality affects disease development of three pathogens on hydroponically grown plants

1997

Andrew C. Schuerger,Christopher S. Brown

publication: HortScience

Partial Abstract

Plants were grown underlight-emitting diode (LED) arrays with various spectra to determine the effects of light quality on the development of diseases caused by tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) on pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), powdery mildew [Sphaerotheca fuliginea (Schlectend: Fr.) Pollaci] on cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), and bacterial wilt (Pseudomonassolanacearum Smith) on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). One LED (660) array supplied 99% red light at 660 nm (25 nm bandwidth at half-peak height) and 1 ...
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christopher-Brown-90/publication/11806699_Spectral_Quality_A...
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Phasic temperature control appraised with the CERES-wheat model

1997

T. Volk, B. Bugbee, R. Tubiello

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Phasic control refers to the specification of a series of different environmental conditions during a crop's life cycle, with the goal of optimizing some aspect of productivity. Because of the enormous number of possible scenarios, phasic control is an ideal situation for modeling to provide guidance prior to experiments. Here we use the Ceres-Wheat model, modified for hydroponic growth chambers, to examine temperature effects. We first establish a baseline by running the model at constant temperatures from 10 degrees C to 30 degrees C. Grain yield per day peaks at 15 degrees C at a value that is 25% higher than the yield at the commonly used 23 degrees C. We then show results for phasic control limited to a single shift in temperature and, finally, we examine scenarios that allow each of the five phases of the life cycle to have a different temperature. Results indicate that grain yield might be increased by 15-20% over the best yield at constant temperature, primarily from a boosted harvest index, which has the additional advantage of less waste biomass. Such gains, if achievable, would help optimize food production for life support systems. Experimental work should first verify the relationship between yield and temperature, and then move to selected scenarios of phasic control, based on model predictions.
pubmed: 11540452 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/f0020001/art00006
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Evidence that elevated CO2 levels can indirectly increase rhizophere denitrifier activity

1997

D.R. Smart, K. Ritchie, J.M. Stark, B. Bugbee

publication: Applied and environmental microbiology

Abstract

We examined the influence of elevated CO2 concentration on denitrifier enzyme activity in wheat rhizoplanes by using controlled environments and solution culture techniques. Potential denitrification activity was from 3 to 24 times higher on roots that were grown under an elevated CO2 concentration of 1,000 micromoles of CO2 mol-1 than on roots grown under ambient levels of CO2. Nitrogen loss, as determined by a nitrogen mass balance, increased with elevated CO2 levels in the shoot environment and with a high NO3- concentration in the rooting zone. These results indicated that aerial CO2 concentration can play a role in rhizosphere denitrifier activity.
doi: 10.1128/aem.63.11.4621-4624.1997 pubmed: 11536820 link: https://journals.asm.org/doi/abs/10.1128/aem.63.11.4621-4624.1997
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Controlled environments alter nutrient content of soybean

1997

L.J. Jurgonski,D.J. Smart,B. Bugbee,S.S. Nielsen

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Information about compositional changes in plants grown in controlled environments is essential for developing a safe, nutritious diet for a Controlled Ecological Life-Support System (CELSS). Information now is available for some CELSS candidate crops, but detailed information has been lacking for soybeans. To determine the effect of environment on macronutrient and mineral composition of soybeans, plants were grown both in the field and in a controlled environment where the hydroponic nutrient solution, photosynthetic flux (PPF), and CO2 level were manipulated to achieve rapid growth rates. Plants were harvested at seed maturity, separated into discrete parts, and oven dried prior to chemical analysis. Plant material was analyzed for proximate composition (moisture, protein, lipid, ash, and carbohydrate), total nitrogen (N), nonprotein N (NPN), nitrate, minerals, amino acid composition, and total dietary fiber. The effect of environment on composition varied by cultivar and plant part. Chamber-grown plants generally exhibited the following characteristics compared with field-grown plants: 1) increased total N and protein N for all plant parts, 2) increased nitrate in leaves and stems but not in seeds, 3) increased lipids in seeds, and 4) decreased Ca:P ratio for stems, pods, and leaves. These trends are consistent with data for other CELSS crops. Total N, protein N, and amino acid contents for 350 ppm CO2 and 1000 ppm CO2 were similar for seeds, but protein N and amino acid contents for leaves were higher at 350 ppm CO2 than at 1000 ppm CO2. Total dietary fiber content of soybean leaves was higher with 350 ppm CO2 than with 1000 ppm CO2. Such data will help in selecting of crop species, cultivars, and growing conditions to ensure safe, nutritious diets for CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00264-0 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797002640
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Growing Super-Dwarf wheat in space station MIR

1997

F.B. Salisbury

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Super-Dwarf wheat plants were grown in the Russian/Bulgarian growth chamber called Svet (means light in Russian), in Space Station Mir, from August 12 to November 9, 1995 (90 days) and from August 5 to December 6, 1996 (123 days); a second 1996 crop grew from December 6, 1996 to January 14, 1997 (39 days). Environmental monitoring instrumentation was built at Utah State University and added to Svet for the experiments. That instrumentation functioned well in 1995, but four of six lamp sets (two lamps in each set) failed, as did the controller and a fan. Plants stayed alive but were mostly vegetative (contrary to ground controls under equivalent photon flux). New, higher intensity lamps and other equipment functioned well during 1996, and plants grew surprisingly well, producing about 280 heads and considerable biomass, but the heads were all sterile. A strong case can be made that the sterility was caused by high ethylene in the cabin atmosphere.
pubmed: 11542291 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11542291
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Development of potato minitubers in microgravity

1997

E. Kordyum,V. Baranenko,E. Nedukha,V. Samoilov

publication: Plant & cell physiology

Abstract

Stem segments of aseptically grown potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Zarevo) were cultivated for 4 weeks under laboratory conditions and were then grown for 8 d on board the "Mir" orbital space station. Timing was such that minitubers initiated and developed during the 8 d on the "Mir". Under space flight and stationary conditions, spherical minitubers were formed with no statistically significant differences in either the frequency of tuber formation or tuber size. These observations are the first to document the formation of vegetative reproductive organs and of well developed amylogenic storage tissue during the microgravity conditions of orbital space flight. In these minitubers, a majority of the starch was stored in parenchyma, with numerous amyloplasts per cell. In space flight tissue, however, grain size of starch was decreased and lamellae within the amyloplasts was locally enlarged. Furthermore, mitochondria of these tissues were characterized by increased matrix density and well developed cristae.
doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pcp.a029095 pubmed: 11536848 link: https://academic.oup.com/pcp/article-abstract/38/10/1111/1847206
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Microbial colonization of a closed growth chamber during hydroponic cultivation of lettuce

1997

D.W. Koenig, R.J. Bruce, T.C. Molina, D.J. Barta, D.L. Pierson

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

The goal of this study was to characterize sessile and planktonic microbiota that developed during two successive hydroponic cultures of lettuce in a closed chamber system. Coupons of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) placed in the nutrient solution lines were removed periodically, as were samples of the nutrient solutions and condensate from the air-handling system. The bacteria and fungi present on the coupons and in fluid samples were enumerated by direct plate counts. Disinfecting the hydroponic system with 0.1% hypochlorite and 0.1 N nitric acid reduced the bacterial densities in biofilm samples from 1 × 107 CFU/10 cm2 to 1 × 101 CFU/10 cm2 and eliminated culturable fungi; Staphylococcus sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Micrococcus sp. survived this procedure. Bacterial and fungal concentrations in all samples returned to predisinfection levels after 2 days of plant growth. Pseudomonas and Acremonium predominated both before and after disinfection. Fungal concentrations never exceeded 7 × 102 CFU/10 cm2. The coupon microbiota differed from that of the rhizoplane at harvest. Overall, the greatest numbers of species were found on the rhizoplane samples collected during the second crop. The microbial community changed little during individual crops or between successive crops. Diversity indices remained relatively constant for all samples.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/f0020001/art00008
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Effect of lamp type and temperature on development, carbon partitioning and yield of soybean

1997

T.A.O. Dougher,B. Bugbee

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Soybeans grown in controlled environments are commonly taller than field-grown plants. In controlled environments, including liquid hydroponics, height of the dwarf cultivar "Hoyt" was reduced from 46 to 33 cm when plants were grown under metal halide lamps compared to high pressure sodium lamps at the same photosynthetic photon flux. Metal halide lamps reduced total biomass 14% but did not significantly reduce seed yield. Neither increasing temperature nor altering the difference between day/night temperature affected plant height. Increasing temperature from 21 to 27 degrees C increased yield 32%. High temperature significantly increased carbon partitioning to stems and increased harvest index.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00857-0 pubmed: 11542566 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008570
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Biomass yield and composition of sweetpotato growth in a nutrient film technique system

1997

A.M. Alamazon, X. Zhou

publication: Plant foods for human nutrition

Abstract

Sweetpotato cultivar TU-82-155 grown in a nutrient film technique system and separated into foliage, tips, fibrous, string and storage roots at harvest had a total dry biomass of 89.9 g per plant with 38.4% inedible portion. Tips and storage roots, the traditional edible parts, were analyzed for dry matter, protein, fat, ash, minerals (Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, Zn), vitamins (carotene, ascorbic acid, thiamin), oxalic and tannic acids, and trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors to determine their nutritional quality. Water soluble matter, minerals (Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, Zn), cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin concentrations in the edible and inedible parts were obtained to provide information needed for the selection of appropriate bioconversion processes of plant wastes into food or forms suitable for crop production in a controlled biological life support system.
doi: 10.1007/BF02436062 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02436062
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Photomorphogenesis, photosynthesis, and seed yield of wheat plants grown under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with and without supplemental blue lighting

1997

G.D. Goins,N.C. Yorio,M.M. Sanwo,C.S. Brown

publication: Journal of experimental botany

Abstract

Red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a potential light source for growing plants in spaceflight systems because of their safety, small mass and volume, wavelength specificity, and longevity. Despite these attractive features, red LEDs must satisfy requirements for plant photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis for successful growth and seed yield. To determine the influence of gallium aluminium arsenide (GaAlAs) red LEDs on wheat photomorphogenesis, photosynthesis, and seed yield, wheat (Triticum aestivum L., cv. 'USU-Super Dwarf') plants were grown under red LEDs and compared to plants grown under daylight fluorescent (white) lamps and red LEDs supplemented with either 1% or 10% blue light from blue fluorescent (BF) lamps. Compared to white light-grown plants, wheat grown under red LEDs alone demonstrated less main culm development during vegetative growth through preanthesis, while showing a longer flag leaf at 40 DAP and greater main culm length at final harvest (70 DAP). As supplemental BF light was increased with red LEDs, shoot dry matter and net leaf photosynthesis rate increased. At final harvest, wheat grown under red LEDs alone displayed fewer subtillers and a lower seed yield compared to plants grown under white light. Wheat grown under red LEDs+10% BF light had comparable shoot dry matter accumulation and seed yield relative to wheat grown under white light. These results indicate that wheat can complete its life cycle under red LEDs alone, but larger plants and greater amounts of seed are produced in the presence of red LEDs supplemented with a quantity of blue light.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/48.7.1407 pubmed: 11541074 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/48/7/1407/521751
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Growing Super-Dwarf wheat in Space Station Mir

1997

F B Salisbury

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Super-Dwarf wheat plants were grown in the Russian/Bulgarian growth chamber called Svet (means light in Russian), in Space Station Mir, from August 12 to November 9, 1995 (90 days) and from August 5 to December 6, 1996 (123 days); a second 1996 crop grew from December 6, 1996 to January 14, 1997 (39 days). Environmental monitoring instrumentation was built at Utah State University and added to Svet for the experiments. That instrumentation functioned well in 1995, but four of six lamp sets (two lamps in each set) failed, as did the controller and a fan. Plants stayed alive but were mostly vegetative (contrary to ground controls under equivalent photon flux). New, higher intensity lamps and other equipment functioned well during 1996, and plants grew surprisingly well, producing about 280 heads and considerable biomass, but the heads were all sterile. A strong case can be made that the sterility was caused by high ethylene in the cabin atmosphere.
pubmed: 11542291 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11542291
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An integrated engineered closed/controlled ecosystem for a lunar base

1997

W.Z. Sadeh, ESadeh

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Long-term human missions in space, such as the establishment of a human-tended lunar base, require autonomous life support systems. A Lunar Engineered Closed/Controlled EcoSystem (LECCES) can provide autonomy by integrating a human module with support plant and animal modules, and waste treatment subsystems. Integration of physical/chemical (P/C) and biological waste treatment subsystems can lead to viable and operational bioregenerative systems that minimize resupply requirements from Earth. A top-level diagram for LECCES is developed based on the human module requirements. The proposed diagram is presented and its components are discussed.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00933-2 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797009332
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Plant reproduction in spaceflight environments

1997

M.E. Musgrave, A. Kuang, D.M. Porterfield

publication: Gravitational and space biology bulletin : publication of the American Society for Gravitational and Space Biology

Abstract

Because plant reproduction is a complex developmental process there are many possible sites of perturbation by the unusual environments of orbital spacecraft. Previous long-duration experiments on Soviet platforms shared features of slowed development through the vegetative stage of plant growth and aborted reproductive function. Our goal has been to understand how special features of the spaceflight environment impact physiological function and reproductive development. In a series of short-duration experiments in the Shuttle mid-deck we studied early reproductive development in Arabidopsis thaliana. Pollen and ovule development aborted at an early stage in the first experiment on STS-54 which utilized closed plant growth chambers. Post-flight analysis suggested that the plants may have been carbon dioxide limited. Subsequent experiments utilized carbon dioxide enrichment (on STS-51) and cabin air flow-through with an air exchange system (on STS-68). Both modifications allowed pollen and ovule development to occur normally on orbit, and full reproductive development up to the stage of an immature seed occurred on STS-68. However, analysis of plant roots from these experiments demonstrated a limitation in rootzone aeration in the spaceflight material that was not mitigated by these procedures. In the future, additional resources (crew time, upgraded flight hardware, and special platforms) will invite more elaborate, long-duration experimentation. On the ISS, a variable speed centrifuge and upgraded plant habitats will permit detailed experiments on the role of gravity in shaping the plant micro-environment, and what influence this plays during reproduction.
pubmed: 11540124 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11540124
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[citation] Plant growth chamber handbook

1997

R.W. Langhans, T.W. Tibbitts

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Integrating biological treatment of crop residue into a hydroponic sweetpotato culture

1997

A.A. Trotman,P.P. David,C.K. Bonsi,W.A. Hill,D.G. Mortley,P.A. Loretan

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Residual biomass from hydroponic culture of sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] was degraded using natural bacterial soil isolates. Sweetpotato was grown for 120 days in hydroponic culture with a nutrient solution comprised of a ratio of 80% modified half Hoagland solution to 20% filtered effluent from an aerobic starch hydrolysis bioreactor. The phytotoxicity of the effluent was assayed with ‘Waldmann's Green’ lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and the ratio selected after a 60-day bioassay using sweetpotato plants propagated vegetatively from cuttings. Controlled environment chamber experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of filtrate from biological treatment of crop residue on growth and storage root production with plants grown in a modified half Hoagland solution. Incorporation of bioreactor effluent, reduced storage root yield of ‘Georgia Jet’ sweetpotato but the decrease was not statistically significant when compared with yield for plants cultured in a modified half Hoagland solution without filtrate. However, yield of ‘TU-82–155’ sweetpotato was significantly reduced when grown in a modified half Hoagland solution into which filtered effluent had been incorporated. Total biomass was significantly reduced for both sweetpotato cultivars when grown in bioreactor effluent. The leaf area and dry matter accumulation were significantly (P < 0.05) reduced for both cultivars when grown in solution culture containing 20% filtered effluent.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00845-4 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008454
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Dynamic optimization of CELSS crop photosynthetic rate by computer-assisted feedback control

1997

C. Chun,C.A. Mitchell

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A procedure for dynamic optimization of net photosynthetic rate (Pn) for crop production in Controlled Ecological Life-Support Systems (CELSS) was developed using leaf lettuce as a model crop. Canopy Pn was measured in real time and fed back for environmental control. Setpoints of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) and CO2 concentration for each hour of the crop-growth cycle were decided by computer to reach a targeted Pn each day. Decision making was based on empirical mathematical models combined with rule sets developed from recent experimental data. Comparisons showed that dynamic control resulted in better yield per unit energy input to the growth system than did static control. With comparable productivity parameters and potential for significant energy savings, dynamic control strategies will contribute greatly to the sustainability of space-deployed CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00852-1 pubmed: 11542561 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008521
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The differentiation of emergences into adventitious shoots in peanut, Arachis hypogea (L.)

1997

Matand Kanyand,Curt M Peterson,C.S Prakash

publication: Plant Science

Abstract

IIn vitro regeneration of peanut may be useful in gene transfer research to develop transgenic peanut plants. The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of developing adventitious shoots from emergences. Three different types of explants, viz: whole embryo, whole leaf and hypocotyl were compared for the regeneration potential of their emergences. Segments of explants, including emergences in various stages of differentiation into adventitious shoots, were studied using brightfield and scanning electron microscopy. Emergences, multicellular structures that resemble multicellular trichomes, were observed at the cotyledonary node, petiole base, and on the rachis of the leaf where folioles are attached. Of these sites, the greatest number of emergences was found at the cotyledonary node. Explants grown on a medium containing 10 mg/l thidiazuron (TDZ) for 3 weeks exhibited progressive morphological changes of emergences when compared to controls. Emergences differentiated into three types of adventitious structures with one type resembling radially concentric shoots. These adventitious shoots had an organized apex region from which flattened leaf-like appendages emerged, a central core of procambium that differentiated into vascular tissue, and stomates borne in the epidermal layer. The greatest extent of shoot differentiation occurred at the cotyledonary node. A total of 11% of these shoots developed roots and grew to maturity in a greenhouse. The ability of emergences to form adventitious shoots has important implications for gene transfer research because of their superficial origin in epidermal and subepidermal tissues that would be directly exposed to particle bombardment.
doi: 10.1016/S0168-9452(97)00093-9 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168945297000939
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Photosynthesis and respiration of a wheat stand at reduced atmospheric pressure and reduced oxygen

1997

K.A. Corey,D.J. Barta,D.L. Henninger

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A 34-day functional test was conducted in Johnson Space Center's Variable Pressure Growth Chamber (VPGC) to determine responses of a wheat stand to reduced pressure (70 kPa) and modified partial pressures of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Reduced pressure episodes were generally six to seven hours in duration, were conducted at reduced ppO2 (14.7 kPa), and were interrupted with longer durations of ambient pressure (101 kPa). Daily measurements of stand net photosynthesis (Pn) and dark respiration (DR) were made at both pressures using a ppCO2 of 121 Pa. Corrections derived from leakage tests were applied to reduced pressure measurements. Rates of Pn at reduced pressure averaged over the complete test were 14.6% higher than at ambient pressure, but rates of DR were unaffected. Further reductions in ppO2 were achieved with a molecular sieve and were used to determine if Pn was enhanced by lowered O2 or by lowered pressure. Decreased ppO2 resulted in enhanced rates of Pn, regardless of pressure, but the actual response was dependent on the ratio of ppO2/ppCO2. Over the range of ppO2/ppCO2 of 80 to 200, the rate of Pn declined linearly. Rate of DR was unaffected over the same range and by dissolved O2 levels down to 3.1 ppm, suggesting that normal rhizosphere and canopy respiration occur at atmospheric ppO2 levels as low as 11 kPa. Partial separation of effects attributable to oxygen and those related to reduced pressure (e.g. enhanced diffusion of CO2) was achieved from analysis of a CO2 drawdown experiment. Results will be used for design and implementation of studies involving complete crop growth tests at reduced pressure.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00854-5 pubmed: 11542563 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008545
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Evaluation of an anaerobic digestion system for processing CELSS crop residues for resource recovery

1997

R.F. Strayer,B.W. Finger,M.P. Alazraki

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Three bioreactors, connected in series, were used to process CELSS potato residues for recovery of resources. The first stage was an anaerobic digestor (8 L working volume; cow rumen contents inoculum; fed-batch; 8 day retention time; feed rate 25 gdw day-1) that converted 33% of feed (dry weight loss) to CO2 and "volatile fatty acids" (vfa, 83:8:8 mmolar ratio acetic:propionic:butyric). High nitrate-N in the potato residue feed was absent in the anaerobic effluent, with a high portion converted to NH4(+)-N and the remainder unaccounted and probably lost to denitrification and NH4+ volatilization. Liquid anaerobic effluent was fed to an aerobic, yeast biomass production vessel (2 L volume; Candida ingens inoculum; batch [pellicle] growth; 2 day retention time) where the VFAs and some NH4(+)-N were converted into yeast biomass. Yeast yields accounted for up to 8% of potato residue fed into the anaerobic bioreactor. The third bioreactor (0.5 L liquid working volume; commercial nitrifier inoculum; packed-bed biofilm; continuous yeast effluent feed; recirculating; constant volume; 23 day hydraulic retention time) was used to convert successfully the remaining NH4(+)-N into nitrate-N (preferred form of N for CELSS crop production) and to remove the remaining degradable soluble organic carbon. Effluents from the last two stages were used for partial replenishment of minerals for hydroponic potato production.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00934-4 pubmed: 11542583 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797009344
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A modified CROPGRO model for simulating soybean growth in controlled environments

1997

J. Cavazzoni, T. Volk, G. Stutte

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The CROPGRO crop growth model is adapted in order to analyze experimental data from a soybean (cv. Hoyt) experiment conducted at elevated CO2 levels (1200 micromol mol-1) at Kennedy Space Center, FL. The following adaptations to original CROPGRO produced model agreement with gas-exchange data: the input of square-wave temperature and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) profiles; the input of the appropriate hydroponic substrate PAR albedo; modified biomass partitioning and developmental parameters; an increased leaf area expansion rate through the fifth vegetative node; a decreased specific leaf area after the fifth vegetative node; and an increased incident diffuse PAR fraction over typical field values. The model demonstrated here suggests that with continued development, modified CROPGRO will be a useful tool in the analysis and eventual optimization of legume production in bioregenerative life support systems.
pubmed: 11540451 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/F0020001/art00005
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Calcium bioavailability of vegetarian diets in rats: Potential application in a bioregenerative life-support system

1997

KWANGOK P. NICKEL,S. SUZANNE NIELSEN,DEBRA J. SMART,CARY A. MITCHELL,MARTHA A. BELURY

publication: Journal of food science

Abstract

Calcium bioavailability of vegetarian diets containing various proportions of candidate crops for a controlled ecological life-support system (CELSS) was determined by femur 45Ca uptake. Three vegetarian diets and a control diet were labeled extrinsically with 45Ca and fed to 5-wk old male rats. A fifth group of rats fed an unlabeled control diet received an intraperitoneal (IP) injection of 45Ca. There was no significant difference in mean calcium absorption of vegetarian diets (90.80 +/- 5.23%) and control diet (87.85 +/- 5.25%) when calculated as the percent of an IP dose. The amounts of phytate, oxalate, and dietary fiber in the diets did not affect calcium absorption.
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1997.tb04445.x pubmed: 11540533 link: https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1997.tb04445.x
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Potato tuber formation in the spaceflight environment

1997

C.S. Brown, T.W. Tibbitts, J.G. Croxdale, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Five potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) leaf cuttings were flown on STS-73 in late October, 1995 as part of the 16-day USML-2 mission. Preflight studies were conducted to study tuber growth, determine carbohydrate concentrations, and examine the developing starch grains within the tuber. In these tests, tubers attained a fresh weight of 1.4 g tuber-1 after 13 days. Tuber fresh mass was significantly correlated to tuber diameter. Greater than 60% of the tuber dry mass was starch and the starch grains varied in size from 2 to 40 micrometers in the long axis. For the flight experiment, cuttings were obtained from 7-week-old Norland potato plants, kept at 5 degrees C for 12 h then planted into arcillite in the ASTROCULTURE(TM) flight hardware. The flight package was loaded on-board the orbiter 22 h prior to launch. During the mission, the flight hardware maintained an environment around the cuttings of 22 +/- 2 degrees C, 81 +/- 7% RH, and a 12-h photoperiod using red and blue light-emitting diodes at a photosynthetic photon flux of 150 micromol m-2 s-1. CO2 concentration exceeded 4000 ppm during the dark period and was controlled during the light period to approximately 400 ppm. Video downlinking of images of the plants and CO2 exchange data during the flight demonstrated plant vitality for the first 12 days of the mission followed by senescence of the leaves. The flight package was received 4 h after landing at the Kennedy Space Center and postflight processing of the samples was completed within 3 h. Four out of the five space-grown cuttings produced tubers that were similar in appearance and dimension to the ground control tubers. This is an important finding if potatoes are to be used as part of a bioregenerative life support system for long-term space exploration.
pubmed: 11540455 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/F0020001/art00009
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Ten years of hydroponic research in NASA’s Biomass Production Chamber

1997

R.M. Wheeler, C.L.Mackowiak, W.L. Berry, G.W. Stutte, N.C. Yorio, L.M. Ruffe

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CELSS research: Interaction between space and terrestrial approaches in plant science

1997

M. Andre, P. Chagvardieff

publication: Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems

Abstract

Sustainable functioning of Life Support System in Space, is based on the concept of Artificial Ecosystem associating producer (plants) and consumer (men) compartments, with a recycling process of wastes. During the last 10 years, the main of studies have concerned the exploration of the limits of plant productivity. Very high yields were obtained in continuous and high lighting, without reaching any limit. Nutrition concepts were renewed. CELSS activities induce now a development in the techniques of image processing applied to plants in order to follow growth, to detect stresses or diseases or to pilot harvesting robots. New equipments were developed. The C23A system (Chambres de Culture Automatiques en Atmosphere Artificielle) is described as an example of closed growth chamber system. It is liable to quantify the main exchanges of matter between plant canopies and above or underground environments. Advantages of closure are emphasised in comparison with open flow systems. The interest of multiple systems is illustrated by the twin chambers method able to compare growth rates, or environmental effects on plants, at the 1% level.The concept of Artificial Ecosystems developed for space project is more and more taken into account by the scientific community. It is considered as a new tool to study basic and applied problems related to ecology and not only concerned by space research. An accurate example concerns the effect of CO2 enrichment on the system Plants-SoilMicro-organisms.
doi: 10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_15 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_15
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Optimal structure of plant conveyor for human life support in a closed ecosystem “BIOS-3”

1997

J.I. Gitelson, G.M. Lisovsky, A.A. Tikhomirov

publication: Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems

Abstract

“Bios-3” experimental facility is designed to study different versions of closed ecological systems (CES) for human life support. Principal functions of regenerating environment for human in this facility are performed by a higher plant conveyor. The conveyor technique of plant cultivation is determined by the requirement of relative stability (in CES) of such conditions as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, uniform time distribution of labor expenditures to till the plants, and uniform supply of food products reproduced by the plants. This is accomplished by endowing the plant conveyor with a certain age structure; its implementation and calculation technique is the subject of this report. The species structure of the plant conveyor in CES is a more complicated problem. The resolution of this problem is aimed to meet human food requirements by optimizing plant growing technologies suitable for CES. Issues for consideration include admissible level of vegetarianizing the human diet, traditional types of nutrition (European, Oriental, Northern, etc.), and the need and feasibility of correcting the ration by certain prestored components, etc. This paper considers several versions of multi-species conveyor structures implemented in 2–5 months-long experiments in “man higher plants” CES. These versions yielded fairly good results In supplying humans with oxygen, water and almost all vegetable products. These results suggest possible avenues to improve further the CES plant conveyor in accordance with chosen criteria for optimizing the human diet and plant growing technologies, primarily with the plant cultivation illumination mode.
doi: 10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_18 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_18
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Concepts, components and controls for a CELSS

1997

J.C. Sager, A.E. Drysdale

publication: Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems

Abstract

If humans are to explore the universe and establish bases on the Lunar surface, Mars, and other extraterrestrial bodies, development of an advanced life support system (ALS) is essential. A bioregenerative ALS is the basic concept of a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS). The selection of the components in a CELSS for long duration missions would most likely be a combination of bioregenerative and physico-chemical components. Requirements for design and development of an ALS system include modularity, open architecture, autonomous control, and high reliability. Autonomous control is needed to maintain appropriate environments and provide robutsness in the event of a communication failure, and must be capable of recognizing and modifying the control environments based on the observed biological responses and life support requirements. The development of CELSS components meeting these requirements will result in an advanced life support system that can enable the exploration of space and human colonization of the universe.
doi: 10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_13 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_13
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Closed plant experiment facility (CPEF) in closed ecology experiment facilities (CEEF) and preliminary studies on CEEF operation

1997

Y. Tako

publication: Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems

Abstract

The Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF) has been under construction in northern Japan since 1994. This facility contains the Closed Plant Experiment Facility (CPEF), as well as other facilities, in all of which, Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) research and development can be conducted. Examples of the types of research that are applicable to these facilities were given. These included an experimental study on CO2 and 02 exchange rates, transpiration rate and yield of edible and inedible parts of rice. Rice is one of the candidate crops for the CPEF to grow, in its closed environment, for an entire growing season. In addition, a series of experiments examining the suitability of waste wet oxidized solution (WOS) as nutrient solution for plant growing were also presented.
doi: 10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_20 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_20
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Diffuse light and wheat radiation-use efficiency in a controlled environment

1997

F. Tubiello, T. Volk, B. Bugbee

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Radiation-use efficiency (dry matter produced per unit absorbed radiation) of a spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L., cv. Veery-10) was 40% higher in controlled growth chamber experiments than under optimal field conditions. Simulations with CERES-Wheat, a field model modified to account for growth chamber conditions, suggest that the observed increase in radiation-use efficiency was due to the large fraction of diffuse light in the experimental chamber. Under optimal conditions in the field, the highest crop growth rates occur when the daily photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) is at its highest levels (50-60 mol m-2 d-1). However, these high growth rates do not appear to be associated with the highest radiation-use efficiency. High PPF levels in the field occur on clear days when the fraction of direct radiation is high and the diffuse fraction is low. In controlled environments with reflective walls, high PPF levels with a large fraction of diffuse radiation can be obtained. Diffuse radiation penetrates to the lower leaves of a canopy better than direct radiation, with the result that the upper leaves are less light saturated and the lower leaves receive more light, increasing radiation-use efficiency, and thus growth rates. The data and model simulations presented here suggest that when diffuse light is a high fraction of the total PPF crop productivity can exceed the highest values attainable in the field under optimal conditions.
pubmed: 11540456 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/f0020001/art00010
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Accumulation and effects of volatile organic compounds in closed life support systems

1997

G.W. Stutte,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) being considered for long duration space missions will operate with limited resupply and utilize biological systems to revitalize the atmosphere, purify water, and produce food. The presence of man-made materials, plant and microbial communities, and human activities will result in the production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). A database of VOC production from potential BLSS crops is being developed by the Breadboard Project at Kennedy Space Center. Most research to date has focused on the development of air revitalization systems that minimize the concentration of atmospheric contaminants in a closed environment. Similar approaches are being pursued in the design of atmospheric revitalization systems in bioregenerative life support systems. in a BLSS one must consider the effect of VOC concentration on the performance of plants being used for water and atmospheric purification processes. In addition to phytotoxic responses, the impact of removing biogenic compounds from the atmosphere on BLSS function needs to be assessed. This paper provides a synopsis of criteria for setting exposure limits, gives an overview of existing information, and discusses production of biogenic compounds from plants grown in the Biomass Production Chamber at Kennedy Space Center.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00625-x pubmed: 11542569 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311779700625X
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Computer modeling for Advanced Life Support system analysis

1997

A. Drysdale

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

This article discusses the equivalent mass approach to advanced life support system analysis, describes a computer model developed to use this approach, and presents early results from modeling the NASA JSC BioPlex. The model is built using an object oriented approach and G2, a commercially available modeling package Cost factor equivalencies are given for the Volosin scenarios. Plant data from NASA KSC and Utah State University (USU) are used, together with configuration data from the BioPlex design effort. Initial results focus on the importance of obtaining high plant productivity with a flight-like configuration.
pubmed: 11540448 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/F0020001/art00003
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Impaired growth of plants cultivated in a closed systems: Possible reasons

1997

J.I. Gitelson,L.S. Tirranen,E.V. Borodina,V.Ye. Rygalov

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Plants in experiments on “man-higher plants” closed ecosystem (CES) have been demonstrated to have inhibited growth and reduced productivity due to three basic factors: prolonged usage of a permanent nutrient solution introduction into the nutrient medium of intra-system gray water, and closure of the system. Gray water was detrimental to plants the longer the nutrient solution was used. However, higher plant growth was mostly affected by the gaseous composition of the CES atmosphere, through accumulation of volatile substances.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00627-3 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797006273
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The closed equilibrated biological aquatic system: General concept and aspects of botanical research

1997

Volker Blüm,Heike Holländer-Czytko,Dirk Voeste

publication: Planta

Abstract

The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (CEBAS) consists of four subcomponents which form a closed (artificial) aquatic ecosystem initially designed to study the long-term influence of space conditions on several successive generations of aquatic organisms. Teleost fishes and water snails in the zoological component produce CO2 ammonium ions and waste compounds which can be utilized after ammonium is oxidised in a microbial component by the botanical component consisting of a rootless, aquatic higher plant species which eliminates ions, i.e. nitrate, and produces oxygen for animal respiration. An electronic component serves as a data-acquisition and regulation device for temperature and oxygen-dependent illumination of the plant chamber. A comprehensive interdisciplinary research programme, focused around the CEBAS, is especially well developed in the field of zoology. It covers a ground laboratory and preparations for two scheduled space flight projects, as well as aspects of combined animal-plant food production modules for human nutrition in bioregenerative space life-support systems and for terrestrial production sites. In the botanical research programme, morphological investigations on Ceratophyllum demersum L. performed with light and electron microscopy have demonstrated a gas lacuna system which, in addition to starch grains in the plastids, might regulate the buoyancy of the plant and/or serve as a 'gas skeleton'. Also, a remarkable symmetry in the arrangement of tissues was observed in stems and older leaves. The photosynthetic capacities of Ceratophyllum in the CEBAS-MINI MODULE proved to be more than sufficient for life support, and experiments on nitrate uptake into the plants showed their capacity to utilize ions from the water.
doi: 10.1007/pl00008109 pubmed: 11540326 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/PL00008109
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Direct utilization of human liquid wastes by plants in a closed ecosystem

1997

G.M. Lisovsky,J.I. Gitelson,M.P. Shilenko,I.V. Gribovskaya,I.N. Trubachev

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Model experiments in phytotrons have shown that urea is able to cover 70% of the demand in nitrogen of the conveyer cultivated wheat. At the same time wheat plants can directly utilize human liquid wastes. In this article by human liquid wastes the authors mean human urine only. In a long-term experiment on “man-higher plants” system with two crewmen, plants covered 63 m2, with wheat planted to − 39.6 m2. For 103 days, complete human urine (total amount − 210.7 l) wassupplied into the nutrient solution for wheat. In a month and a half NaCl supply into the nutrient solution stabilized at 0.9–1.65 g/l. This salination had no marked effect on wheat production. The experiment revealed the realistic feasibility to directly involve liquid wastes into the biological turnover of the life support system. The closure of the system, in terms of water, increased by 15.7% and the supply of nutrients for wheat plants into the system was decreased.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(97)87951-3 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797879513
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CO2 enrichment influences yields of ‘Florunner’

1997

D.G. Mortley,Philip A. Loretan,J.H. Hill,J. Seminara

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Three peanut cultivars, 'Florunner,' 'Georgia Red,' and 'New Mexico,' were grown in reach-in chambers to determine response to CO2 enrichment. CO2 treatments were ambient (400 micromol mol-1) and 700 micromol mol-1. Growth chamber conditions included 700 micromol m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), 28/22C, 7O% RH, and 12/12 h photoperiod. Growth media consisted of a 1:1 mixture (v/v) of vermiculite and sterilized sand. Six 10 L pots of each cultivar were fertilized three times per week with 250 mL of nutrient solution containing additional Ca (10 mM) and NO3 (25 mM) and watered well. Beginning 21 days after planting (DAP) and every three weeks thereafter up to 84 days, the second leaf from the growing axis (main stem) was detached to determine CO2 effect on leaf area, specific leaf area (SLA) and dry weight. Plants were harvested 97 DAP, at which time total leaf area, leaf number, plant and root weights and pod production data were taken. Numbers of pods per plant, pod fresh and dry weights, fibrous root and plant dry weights were higher for all cultivars grown at 700 micromol mol-1 than at ambient CO2. Also, leaf area for all cultivars was larger with CO2 enrichment than at ambient. SLA tended to decline with time regardless of CO2 treatment. Percentage of total sound mature kernels (%TSMK) was similar for both treatments. Plants grown at 700 micromol mol-1 CO2 had slightly more immature pods and seeds at final harvest.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00859-4 pubmed: 11542568 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008594
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Nutritional quality of sweetpotato greens from greenhouse plants

1997

Aurea M. Almazan,Fatima Begum,Colette Johnson

publication: Journal of Food Composition and Analysis

Abstract

Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas(L.) Lam.) is a candidate root crop for production in the Advanced Life Support System (ALSS) program of the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA). To increase the edible plant portion, the use of young leaves and petioles from sweetpotato grown by the nutrient film technique (NFT) as a green or leafy vegetable for ALSS is promoted. This study was conducted to determine the nutritional quality of sweetpotato greens from plants grown by NFT. Nutrient concentrations in greens from the same cultivars (Georgia Jet, Jewel, and TU-82-155) grown in greenhouse beds were also obtained for comparison. Raw greens from hydroponic and bed plants were analyzed for dry matter, protein, ash, total dietary fiber, fat, minerals (Ca, Fe, K, Na, Mg, Zn), vitamins (carotene, ascorbic acid, thiamine), oxalic and tannic acids, and chymotrypsin and trypsin inhibitors. Differences in the nutrient and antinutrient concentrations were observed in the three cultivars due to variety and production method.
doi: 10.1006/jfca.1997.0538 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088915759790538X
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Gas turnover and gas conditions in hermetically closed plant production systems

1997

H.J. Daunicht

publication: Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems

Abstract

Materially closed crop production systems are needed for long-term space missions and as research tools. Within life support systems they need to be characterized by a) very high crop production rates per unit air volume, b) by being directly or indirectly linked to heterotrophic compartments, and c) by procedures to counteract accumulations of gaseous contaminants. This review is concentrated on the aspects of the crop production system. For illustrating gas turnover and gas conditions, a “reference unit” of a biological life support system is introduced, in which plant production just meets the food demand of a crew. For the plant habitat the turnover of CO2, O2, and N2 is explained. Then, the desired values for CO2 & O2, plant responses to air pressure, and aspects of gas exchange between the compartments of a life support system are discussed. Finally, the critical but less understood issue of accumulating harmful trace gases, as being emitted by plants & microorganisms (ethylene being the most relevant), is briefly reviewed.
doi: 10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_14 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_14
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CELSS-3D: A broad computer model simulating a controlled ecological life support system

1997

M.A. Schneegurt, L.A. Sherman

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

CELSS-3D is a dynamic, deterministic, and discrete computer simulation of a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) focusing on biological issues. A series of linear difference equations within a graphic-based modeling environment, the IThink program, was used to describe a modular CELSS system. The overall model included submodels for crop growth chambers, food storage reservoirs, the human crew, a cyanobacterial growth chamber, a waste processor, fixed nitrogen reservoirs, and the atmospheric gases, CO, O2, and N2. The primary process variable was carbon, although oxygen and nitrogen flows were also modeled. Most of the input data used in CELSS-3D were from published sources. A separate linear optimization program, What'sBest!, was used to compare options for the crew's vegetarian diet. CELSS-3D simulations were run for the equivalent of 3 years with a 1-h time interval. Output from simulations run under nominal conditions was used to illustrate dynamic changes in the concentrations of atmospheric gases. The modular design of CELSS-3D will allow other configurations and various failure scenarios to be tested and compared.
pubmed: 11540449 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/f0020001/art00002
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Structure of potato tubers formed during spaceflight

1997

Judith Croxdale,Martha Cook,Theodore W. Tibbitts,Christopher S. Brown,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of experimental botany

Abstract

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Norland) explants, consisting of a leaf, axillary bud, and small stem segment, were used as a model system to study the influence of spaceflight on the formation of sessile tubers from axillary buds. The explants were flown on the space shuttle Columbia (STS-73, 20 October to 5 November 1995) in the ASTROCULTURE (TM) flight package, which provided a controlled environment for plant growth. Light and scanning electron microscopy were used to compare the precisely ordered tissues of tubers formed on Earth with those formed during spaceflight. The structure of tubers produced during spaceflight was similar to that of tubers produced in a control experiment. The size and shape of tubers, the geometry of tuber tissues, and the distribution of starch grains and proteinaceous crystals were comparable in tubers formed in both environments. The shape, surface texture, and size range of starch grains from both environments were similar, but a greater percentage of smaller starch grains formed in spaceflight than on Earth. Since explant leaves must be of given developmental age before tubers form, instructions regarding the regular shape and ordered tissue geometry of tubers may have been provided in the presence of gravity. Regardless of when the signalling occurred, gravity was not required to produce a tuber of typical structure.
doi: 10.1093/jexbot/48.317.2037 pubmed: 11541084 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/48/12/2037/681674
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Yield comparisons and unique characteristics of the dwarf wheat cultivar ‘USU Apogee’

1997

B. Bugbee,G. Koerner

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Extremely short, high yielding cultivars of all crop plants are needed to optimize the food production of bioregenerative life support systems in space. In the early 1980's, we examined over a thousand wheat genotypes from the world germplasm collection in search of genotypes with appropriate characteristics for food production in space. Here we report the results of 12 years of hybridization and selection for the perfect wheat cultivar. 'USU-Apogee' is a full-dwarf hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivar developed for high yields in controlled environments. USU-Apogee was developed by the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station in cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and released in April 1996. USU-Apogee is a shorter, higher yielding alternative to 'Yecora Rojo' and 'Veery-10', the short field genotypes previously selected for use in controlled environments. The yield advantage of USU-Apogee is 10 to 30% over these other cultivars, depending on environmental conditions. USU-Apogee (45-50 cm tall, depending on temperature) is 10 to 15 cm shorter than Yecora Rojo and 1 to 4 cm shorter than Veery-10. USU-Apogee was also selected for resistance to the calcium-induced leaf tip chlorosis that occurs in controlled-environments. Breeder seed of USU-Apogee will be maintained by the Crop Physiology Laboratory and seed is available for testing on request.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00856-9 pubmed: 11542565 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008569
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Food production in space: Challenges and perspectives

1997

T.W. Tibbitts, D.L. Henninger

publication: Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems

Abstract

Our next century will undoubtedly see the exploitation of plant growth in space to provide food, supply oxygen, remove carbon dioxide, and purify water. An area of 25–40 m2 will provide life support for one person. A large mass will have to be transported to space to provide the lighting, environmental control, nutrient and water supply, and the systems for recycling of all waste products. The system will be highly automated and be maintained with sophisticated, intelligent monitoring and control systems to insure effective and reliable life support. A major challenge is the recycling of the solid and liquid wastes to insure 95%+ reuse of all elements. Other challenges are compatibility with reduced gravity environments, capability to grow effectively at reduced pressures, interaction among all components of the life support system (plants (humans, microbes, physiochemical processors, and mechanical systems), production of multiple plant species in the same growing unit, and exploitation of on-site raw materials. The challenges are many, but these are challenges that provide real excitement for plant scientists, and there is a confidence that these challenges can be met.
doi: 10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_12 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_12
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Effects of bioreactor retention time on aerobic microbial decomposition of CELSS crop residues

1997

R.F. Strayer,B.W. Finger,M.P. Alazraki

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The focus of resource recovery research at the KSC-CELSS Breadboard Project has been the evaluation of microbiologically mediated biodegradation of crop residues by manipulation of bioreactor process and environmental variables. We will present results from over 3 years of studies that used laboratory- and breadboard-scale (8 and 120 L working volumes, respectively) aerobic, fed-batch, continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) for recovery of carbon and minerals from breadboard grown wheat and white potato residues. The paper will focus on the effects of a key process variable--bioreactor retention time--on response variables indicative of bioreactor performance. The goal is to determine the shortest retention time that is feasible for processing CELSS crop residues, thereby reducing bioreactor volume and weight requirements. Pushing the lower limits of bioreactor retention times will provide useful data for engineers who need to compare biological and physicochemical components. Bioreactor retention times were manipulated to range between 0.25 and 48 days. Results indicate that increases in retention time lead to a 4-fold increase in crop residue biodegradation, as measured by both dry weight losses and CO2 production. A similar overall trend was also observed for crop residue fiber (cellulose and hemicellulose), with a noticeable jump in cellulose degradation between the 5.3 day and 10.7 day retention times. Water-soluble organic compounds (measured as soluble TOC) were appreciably reduced by more than 4-fold at all retention times tested. Results from a study of even shorter retention times (down to 0.25 days), in progress, will also be presented.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00936-8 pubmed: 11542585 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797009368
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Registration of ‘USU Apogee’ wheat

1997

Bruce Bugbee,Gus Koerner,Rulon Albrechtsen,Wade Dewey,Shyrl Clawson

publication: Crop Science

Abstract

Derived from the cross Parula/Super Dwarf, the dwarf wheat USU-Apogee was released in 1996 as an improved cultivar for bioregenerative life support systems in space. It is a shorter, higher yielding alternative to Yecora Rojo and Veery-10, averaging 45-50 cm tall (depending on temperature), which is 10-15 cm shorter than Yecora Rojo and 2-5 cm shorter than Veery-10. USU-Apogee is resistant to the leaf tip chlorosis that occurs in wheat under rapid growth conditions, particularly under continuous light.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1997.0011183X003700020053x link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19971611943
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Element exchange in a water and gas closed biological life support system

1997

I.V. Gribovskaya,Yu.A. Kudenko,J.I. Gitelson

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Liquid human wastes and household water used for nutrition of wheat made possible to realize 24% closure for the mineral exchange in an experiment with a 2-component version of “Bios-3” life support system (LSS) Input-output balances of revealed, that elements (primarily trace elements) within the system. The structural materials (steel, titanium), expanded clay aggregate, and catalytic furnace catalysts. By the end of experiment, the permanent nutrient solution, plants, and the human diet gradually built up Ni, Cr, Al, Fe, V, Zn, Cu, and Mo. Thorough selection and pretreatment of materials can substantially reduce this accumulation.
To enhance closure of the mineral exchange involves processing of human- metabolic wastes and inedible biomes inside LSS. An efficient method to oxidize wastes by hydrogen peroxide in a quartz reactor at the temperature of 80 ° C controlled electromagnetic field is proposed.

doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00939-3 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797009393
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Controlled ecological life support system-related activities in Japan

1997

S. Kibe, K. Suzuki, A. Shida, K. Otsubo, K. Nitta

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

This article provides an overview of current CELSS-related activities in Japan. The status and future plan of the Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF), the so-called, “Biosphere-J," are introduced. The Institute for Environment Sciences (ICE) has completed its first construction plan of the Closed Plant Experiment Facility (CPEF) and is now constructing the Closed Geo-Hydrosphere Experiment Facility (CGEF). Next, as one of the most prospective applications of CELSS technologies, introduced is the space-related CELSS research activity in the Space Environment Utilization Frontiers Joint Research Program, which was promoted by Science and Technology Agency (STA) and National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of the Japanese government to encourage the Space Station utilization activities.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/f0020003/art00006
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Integration of crop production with CELSS waste management

1997

K. Wignarajah,D.L. Bubenheim

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Lettuce plants were grown utilizing water, inorganic elements, and CO2 inputs recovered from waste streams. The impact of these waste-derived inputs on the growth of lettuce was quantified and compared with results obtained when reagent grade inputs were used. Phytotoxicity was evident in both the untreated wastewater stream and the recovered CO2 stream. The toxicity of surfactants in wastewater was removed using several treatment systems. Harmful effects of gaseous products resulting from incineration of inedible biomass on crop growth were observed. No phytotoxicity was observed when inorganic elements recovered from incinerated biomass ash were used to prepare the hydroponic solution, but the balance of nutrients had to be modified to achieve near optimal growth. The results were used to evaluate closure potential of water and inorganic elemental loops for integrated plant growth and human requirements.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00849-1 pubmed: 11542558 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008491
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Advances in Space Research 20(10)2001-2008

1997

None

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Phytotoxic effects of gray water due to surfactants

1997

David Bubenheim,Kanapathipillai Wignarajah,Wade Berry,Theodore Wydeven

publication: Journal of the …

Partial Abstract

To determine if gray water would have phytotoxic effects on crops grown in a CELSS, “Waldmann's Green” lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was grown in nutrient solutions containing varying concentrations of Igepon TC-42. Igepon concentrations of250mg L" or higherin nutrientsolutions resulted in Our findings indicate that microorganisms associated with lettuce in hydroponic culture could degrade Igepon TC-42 and eliminate phytotoxic effects. This suggests that the phytotoxicity of gray water resulting from the surfactant contaminants ...
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Bubenheim/publication/279656639_Phytotoxic_Effects_of_...
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Human life support for advanced space exploration

1997

Steven H. Schwartzkopf

publication: Advances in space biology and medicine

Abstract

The requirements for a human life support system for long-duration space missions are reviewed. The system design of a controlled ecological life support system is briefly described, followed by a more detailed account of the study of the conceptual design of a Lunar Based CELSS. The latter is to provide a safe, reliable, recycling lunar base life support system based on a hybrid physicochemical/biological representative technology. The most important conclusion reached by this study is that implementation of a completely recycling CELSS approach for a lunar base is not only feasible, but eminently practical. On a cumulative launch mass basis, a 4-person Lunar Base CELSS would pay for itself in approximately 2.6 years relative to a physicochemical air/water recycling system with resupply of food from the Earth. For crew sizes of 30 and 100, the breakeven point would come even sooner, after 2.1 and 1.7 years, respectively, due to the increased mass savings that can be realized with the larger plant growth units. Two other conclusions are particularly important with regard to the orientation of future research and technology development. First, the mass estimates of the Lunar Base CELSS indicate that a primary design objective in implementing this kind of system must be to minimized the mass and power requirement of the food production plant growth units, which greatly surpass those of the other air and water recycling systems. Consequently, substantial research must be directed at identifying ways to produce food more efficiently. On the other hand, detailed studies to identify the best technology options for the other subsystems should not be expected to produce dramatic reductions in either mass or power requirement of a Lunar Base CELSS. The most crucial evaluation criterion must, therefore, be the capability for functional integration of these technologies into the ultimate design of the system. Secondly, this study illustrates that existing or near-term technologies are adequate to implement a Lunar Base CELSS. There are no apparent "show-stoppers" which require the development of new technologies. However, there are several areas in which new materials and technologies could be used for a more efficient implementation of the system, e.g., by decreasing mass or power requirement and increasing recycling efficiency. These areas must be further addressed through research and development. Finally, although this study focused on the development of a Lunar Base CELSS, the same technologies and a nearly identical design would be appropriate for a Mars base. Actually, except for the distance of transportation, the implementation of a CELSS on Mars would even be easier than it would be on the Moon. The presence of atmospheric CO2 on Mars, although in low concentration, coupled with the fact that the day/night cycle on Mars is very similar to that on Earth, makes the use of light-weight, greenhouse-like structures for growing food plants even more feasible than on the Moon. There are some environmental problems, which would have to be dealt with, like dust storms and the large amount of the ultraviolet radiation incident on the planet's surface. However, the materials and methods are largely available today to develop such a life support system for a Mars base.
doi: 10.1016/s1569-2574(08)60085-4 pubmed: 9048141 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1569257408600854
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Atmospheric leakage and method for measurement of gas exchange rates of a crop stand at reduced pressure

1997

K.A. Corey,D.J. Barta,M.A. Edeen,D.L. Henninger

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The variable pressure growth chamber (VPGC) was used in a 34-day functional test to grow a wheat crop using reduced pressure (70 kPa) episodes totalling 131 hours. Primary goals of the test were to verify facility and subsystem performance at 70 kPa and to determine responses of a wheat stand to reduced pressure and modified partial pressures of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Operation and maintenance of the chamber at 70 kpa involved continuous evacuation of the chamber atmosphere, leading to CO2 influx and efflux. A model for calculating CO2-exchange rates (net photosynthesis and dark respiration) was developed and tested and involved measurements of chamber leakage to determine appropriate corrections. Measurement of chamber leakage was based on the rate of pressure change over a small pressure increment (70.3 to 72.3 kPa) with the pump disabled. Leakage values were used to correct decreases and increases in chamber CO2 concentration resulting from net photosynthesis (Ps) and dark respiration (DR), respectively. Composite leakage corrections (influx and efflux) at day 7 of the test were 9% and 19% of the changes measured for Ps and DR, respectively. On day 33, composite corrections were only 3% for Ps and 4% for DR. During the test, the chamber became progressively tighter; the leak rate at 70.3 kPa decreasing from 2.36 chamber volumes/day pretest, to 1.71 volumes/day at the beginning of the test, and 1.16 volumes/day at the end of the test. Verification of the short-term leakage tests (rate of pressure rise) were made by testing CO2 leakage with the vacuum pump enabled and disabled. Results demonstrate the suitability of the VPGC or conducting gas exhange measurements of a crop stand at reduced pressure.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)87952-5 pubmed: 11542562 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797879525
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A simple mass balance model of nitrogen flow in a bioregenerative life support system

1997

C.A. Loader, J.L. Garland, S. Raychaudhuri, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

A mathematical model of the nitrogen cycle in a bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) was developed to help conceptualize and quantify nitrogen flux and storage in BLSS processes and subsystems. The mathematical model was initially designed as a simple mass balance, donor-controlled system that quantified the amount of nitrogen in moles per person. Dynamic equations were then applied to describe certain relationships more accurately. Comparison of nitrogen fluxes suggests that even at very low atmospheric leakage rates, loss of nitrogen gas would account for the largest nitrogen movement in the "closed" system. This observation decreases the relative importance of denitrification and nitrification in closed system nitrogen balances. Sensitivity analysis was used to determine the relative stability of various model subsystems, and demonstrated the importance of plant nitrogen uptake on overall system dynamics of nitrogen.
pubmed: 11540450 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/f0020001/art00004
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Density and composition of microorganisms during long-term (418 day) growth of potato using biologically reclaimed nutrients from inedible plant biomass

1997

J.L. Garland,K.L. Cook,M. Johnson,R. Sumner,N. Fields

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A study evaluating alternative methods for long term operation of biomass production systems was recently completed at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The 418-day study evaluated repeated batch versus mixed-aged production of potato grown on either standard 1/2-strength Hoagland's nutrient solution or solutions including nutrients recycled from inedible plant material. The long term effects of closure and recycling on microbial dynamics were evaluated by monitoring the microbial communities associated with various habitats within the plant growth system (i.e., plant roots, nutrient solution, biofilms within the hydroponic systems, atmosphere, and atmospheric condensate). Plate count methods were used to enumerate and characterize microorganisms. Microscopic staining methods were used to estunate total cell densities. The primary finding was that the density and composition of microbial communities associated with controlled environmental plant growth systems are stable during long term operation. Continuous production resulted in slightly greater stability. Nutrient recycling, despite the addition of soluble organic material from the waste processing system, did not significantly increase microbial density in any of the habitats.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00628-5 pubmed: 11542572 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797006285
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Super-optimal CO2 reduces wheat yield in growth chamber and greenhouse environments

1997

T. Grotenhuis,J. Reuveni,B. Bugbee

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Seven growth chamber trials (six replicate trials using 0.035, 0.12, and 0.25% CO2 in air and one trial using 0.12, 0.80, and 2.0% CO2 in air) and three replicate greenhouse trials (0.035, 0.10, 0.18, 0.26, 0.50, and 1.0% CO2 in air) compare the effects of super-optimal CO2 on the seed yield, harvest index, and vegetative growth rate of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cvs. USU-Apogee and Veery-10). Plants in the growth chamber trials were grown hydroponically under fluorescent lamps, while the greenhouse trials were grown under sunlight and high pressure sodium lamps and in soilless media. Plants in the greenhouse trials responded similarly to those in the growth chamber trials; maximum yields occurred near 0.10 and 0.12% CO2 and decreased significantly thereafter. This research indicates that the toxic effects of elevated CO2 are not specific to only one environment and has important implications for the design of bio-regenerative life support systems in space, and for the future of terrestrial agriculture.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00858-2 pubmed: 11542567 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008582
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Advances in Space Research

1997

Bülent Bayram

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Bios-3: Siberian experiments in bioregenerative life support

1997

Frank B. Salisbury,Josef I. Gitelson,Genry M. Lisovsky

publication: Bioscience

Abstract

W hehen rocket science made it possible for humans to ven-ture into space, it became apparent that human life support was the next pressing challenge. For the short term, this problem was solved by applying engineering approaches to provide a spacecraft atmosphere of suitable pressure and composition. Food and water were brought along, and wastes were stored or jettisoned. It soon became apparent, however, that long space voyages would benefit from waste recycling, possibly by us-ing green plants (ie, algae or
doi: 10.2307/1313164 pubmed: 11540303 link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1313164
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Food production and nutrition for the crew during the first 2-year closure of Biosphere 2

1997

S.E. Silverstone

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Biosphere 2's finite natural resources: atmosphere, plants, water, and soil, and its unique increased rate of nutrient cycling, mandated a design for the agriculture that emphasized sustainability and high productivity. The results of the initial 2-year test of the agriculture system showed that it could provide a diet that was both nutritionally adequate and pleasing to the palate of the eight-member crew from September 1991 to September 1993. The agriculture design was developed from 1985 to 1991 at the Space Biospheres research greenhouses with consulting from the Institute of Ecotechnics (London) from its experiments in New Mexico, Australia, and France and the Environmental Research Laboratory (University of Arizona). During the 2-year mission this research was continued with the close collaboration of outside scientific consultants, particularly in the area of soil management and integrated pest management. The 2000-m2 cropping area provided approximately 81% of the overall nutritional needs of the crew. Initial results showed light to be the main limiting factor and the additional electric light was added after the first 2-year mission to increase the productivity for future experiments. The diet was primarily vegetarian supplemented with daily amounts of milk, and weekly meals of meat and eggs from the system's domestic goats, pigs, and chickens. Nontoxic methods of pest and disease control were used. The main pest problems were broad mite and root knot nematode. Inedible plant material, domestic animal wastes, and human waste water were successfully processed for nutrient return to the soil. Eighty-six varieties of crops were grown in Biosphere 2. Major staple crops included rice, sweet potato, beets, banana, and papaya. The African pygmy goats were the most productive of the domestic animals producing on average 1.14 kg of milk per day. The diet averaged 2200 calories, 73 g of protein, and 32 g of fat per person per day over the 2 years. The crew had a 10-20% weight loss, mostly occurring in the first 6 months of closure, after which weights stabilized with some increase in the second year. Agriculture field management took 25% of crew time, animal care required an additional 9% and food preparation accounted for 12% of crew labor.
pubmed: 11542292 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1997/00000004/f0020003/art00010
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Starch concentration and impact on specific leaf weight and element concentrations in potato leaves under varied carbon dioxide and temperature

1997

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

Foliar concentrations of starch and major elements, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg), along with specific leaf weight (SLW) were determined in the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cvs 'Denali', 'Norland', and 'Russet Burbank' grown for 35 days under CO2 concentrations of 500, 1,000, 1,500 and 2,000 micromoles mol-1 at both 16 degrees C and 20 degrees C air temperature. The starch concentration, pooled from the three cultivars, increased with increasing CO2 concentration at both 16 degrees C and 20 degrees C and was consistently higher at 16 degrees C than at 20 degrees C. The SLW (g m-2) was positively related to the foliar starch concentration on the basis of leaf area or dry weight. The concentrations of N, P, Ca, and Mg in leaves were negatively related to starch concentration under approximately 14% starch on a dry weight basis. Above 14% starch, there was no significant relationship between element and starch concentrations. Similar patterns were seen when the SLW and element concentrations were expressed on a starch-free basis. In contrast, the leaf concentration of K was not closely related to the starch concentration because the K concentration was similar at varied CO2 levels. The results of this study indicate that the changes in SLW and concentrations of N, P, Ca, and Mg in potato leaves only partially resulted from the changed starch concentration.
doi: 10.1080/01904169709365302 pubmed: 11541213 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904169709365302
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Effects of modified atmosphere on crop productivity and mineral content

1997

P. Chagvardieff,B. Dimon,A. Souleimanov,D. Massimino,S. Le Bras,M. Péan,D. Louche-Teissandier

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Wheat, potato, pea and tomato crops were cultivated from seeding to harvest in a controlled and confined growth chamber at elevated CO2 concentration (3700 microL L-1) to examine the effects on biomass production and edible part yields. Different responses to high CO2 were recorded, ranging from a decline in productivity for wheat, to slight stimulation for potatoes, moderate increase for tomatoes, and very large enhancement for pea. Mineral content in wheat and pea seeds was not greatly modified by the elevated CO2. Short-term experiments (17 d) were conducted on potato at high (3700 microL L-1) and very high (20,000 microL L-1) CO2 concentration and/or low O2 partial pressure (approximately 20,600 microL L-1 or 2 kPa). Low O2 was more effective than high CO2 in total biomass accumulation, but development was affected: Low O2 inhibited tuberization, while high CO2 significantly increased production of tubers.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00262-7 pubmed: 11542577 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797002627
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Use of bioregenerative technologies for Advanced Life Support: Some considerations for BIO-Plex and related testbeds

1997

R.M. Wheeler, R.F. Strayer

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

A review of bioregenerative life support concepts is provided as a guide for developing ground-based testbeds for NASA's Advanced Life Support Program. Key among these concepts are the use of controlled environment plant culture for the production of food, oxygen, and clean water, and the use of bacterial bioreactors for degrading wastes and recycling nutrients. Candidate crops and specific bioreactor approaches are discussed based on experiences from the. Kennedy Space Center Advanced Life Support Breadboard Project, and a review of related literature is provided.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19980003333
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Effect of elevated carbon dioxide on nutritional quality of tomato

1997

R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,G.W. Stutte,N.C. Yorio,W.L. Berry

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cvs. Red Robin (RR) and Reimann Philipp (RP) were grown hydroponically for 105 d with a 12 h photoperiod, 26 degrees C/22 degrees C thermoperiod, and 500 micromol m-2 s-1 PPF at either 400, 1200, 5000, or 10,000 micromol mol-1 (0.04, 0.12, 0.50, 1.00 kPa) CO2. Harvested fruits were analyzed for proximate composition, total dietary fiber, nitrate, and elemental composition. No trends were apparent with regard to CO2 effects on proximate composition, with fruit from all treatments and both cultivars averaging 18.9% protein, 3.6% fat, 10.2% ash, and 67.2% carbohydrate. In comparison, average values for field-grown fruit are 16.6% protein, 3.8% fat, 8.1% ash, and 71.5% carbohydrate (Duke and Atchely, 1986). Total dietary fiber was highest at 10,000 micromol mol-1 (28.4% and 22.6% for RR and RP) and lowest at 1000 micromol mol-1 (18.2% and 15.9% for RR and RP), but showed no overall trend in response to CO2. Nitrate values ranged from 0.19% to 0.35% and showed no trend with regard to CO2. K, Mg, and P concentrations showed no trend in response to CO2, but Ca levels increased from 198 and 956 ppm in RR and RP at 400 micromol mol-1, to 2537 and 2825 ppm at 10,000 micromol mol-1. This increase in Ca caused an increase in fruit Ca/P ratios from 0.07 and 0.37 for RR and RP at 400 micromol mol-1 to 0.99 and 1.23 for RR and RP at 10,000 micromol mol-1, suggesting that more dietary Ca should be available from high CO2-grown fruit.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00263-9 pubmed: 11542578 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797002639
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Use of biological reclaimed minerals for continuous hydroponic potato production in a CELSS

1997

C.L. Mackowiak, R.M. Wheeler, G.W. Stutte, N.C. Yorio, J.C. Sager

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Plant-derived nutrients were successfully recycled in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) using biological methods. The majority of the essential nutrients were recovered by microbiologically treating the plant biomass in an aerobic bioreactor. Liquid effluent containing the nutrients was then returned to the biomass production component via a recirculating hydroponic system. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv. Norland plants were grown on those nutrients in either a batch production mode (same age plants on a nutrient solution) or a staggered production mode (4 different ages of plants on a nutrient solution). The study continued over a period of 418 days, within NASA Breadboard Project's Biomass Production Chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. During this period, four consecutive batch cycles (104-day harvests) and 13 consecutive staggered cycles (26-day harvests) were completed using reclaimed minerals and compared to plants grown with standard nutrient solutions. All nutrient solutions were continually recirculated during the entire 418 day study. In general, tuber yields with reclaimed minerals were within 10% of control solutions. Contaminants, such as sodium and recalcitrant organics tended to increase over time in solutions containing reclaimed minerals, however tuber composition was comparable to tubers grown in the control solutions.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00846-6 pubmed: 11542555 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008466
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Continuous light effects on photosynthesis and carbon metabolism in tomato

1997

S. Globig,I. Rosen,Harry W. Janes

publication: … on Artificial Lighting in Horticulture 418

Partial Abstract

Several parameters of the photosynthetic process were investigated in continuous-light injured tomato plants in an effort to clarify the metabolic processes leading to injury. Fresh weights per leaf area, pigment composition (chlorophylls a and b and carotenoids), carbon fixation (carbon exchange rates and Rubisco activities) and whole-chain photosynthetic electron transport capacity were examined in the fourth leaf of young plants grown in controlled environment chambers under continuous light or 12 hours light/12 hours dark for ...
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1997.418.19 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/418/418_19.htm
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Environmental control for plant production in space CELSS

1997

E. Goto

publication: Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems

Abstract

Environmental control is expected to be a key technology for achieving plant production in a space CELSS because the environments are completely artificial and controllable. Plant production systems for space CELSS will be improvements to systems which are currently used in controlled environment agriculture and factory-like plant production. For plant production in space CELSS, air pressure, gas and light environments can be totally controlled independently from the outside conditions. The present paper focuses on these environmental factors in space CELSS which have unique features compared to those in current greenhouse production.
doi: 10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_17 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8889-8_17
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An overview: Recycling nutrients from crop residues for space applications

1997

Richard F. Strayer,Cheryl F. Atkinson

publication: Compost science & utilization

Abstract

Without some form of regenerative life support system, long duration space habitation or travel will be limited severely by the prohibitive costs of resupplying air, water, and food from Earth. Components under consideration for inclusion in a regenerative life support system are based on either physicochemical or biological processes. Physicochemical systems would use filtration and elemental phase changes to convert waste materials into usable products, while biological systems would use higher plants and bioreactors to supply crew needs. Neither a purely biological nor strictly a physicochemical approach can supply all crew needs, thus, the best each approach can offer will be combined into a hybrid regenerative life support system. Researchers at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Advanced Life Support Breadboard Project have taken the lead on bioregenerative aspects of space life support. The major focus has been on utilization of higher plants for production of food, oxygen, and clean water. However, a key to any regenerative life support system is recycling and recovery of resources (wastes). In keeping with the emphasis at KSC on bioregenerative systems and with the focus on plants, this paper focuses on research with biologically-based options for resource recovery from inedible crop residues.
doi: 10.1080/1065657x.1997.10701882 pubmed: 11541065 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1065657X.1997.10701882
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Hydroponic lettuce production influenced by integrated supplemental light levels in a controlled environment agriculture facility: Experimental results

1997

A.J. Both,L.D. Albright,R.W. Langhans,R.A. Reiser,B.G. Vinzant

publication: … Symposium on Artificial …

Partial Abstract

Bibb lettuce (Lactuca sativa L., cv. Ostinata) was grown in peat-vermiculite plugs placed in a recirculating hydroponic (NFT) system. Supplemental lighting was used to reach different PPF target levels in each of 35 treatments. A second order exponential polynomial was developed to predict DW accumulation for PPF target levels between 8 and 22 mol m-2 d-1. Little difference in DW production was noted between lettuce grown under daytime and nighttime lighting. Tipburn was prevented using a fan blowing greenhouse air vertically ...
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1997.418.5 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/418/418_5.htm
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Super-optimal CO2 reduces seed yield but not vegetative growth in wheat

1997

Timothy P. Grotenhuis,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Crop Science

Abstract

Although terrestrial atmospheric CO2 levels will not reach 1000 μmol mol−1 (0.1%) for decades, CO2 levels in growth chambers and greenhouses routinely exceed that concentration. CO2 levels in life support systems in space can exceed 10 000 μmol mol−1 (1%). Numerous studies have examined CO2 effects up to 1000 μmol mol−1, but biochemical measurementisn dicate that the beneficial effects of CO2 can continue beyond this concentration. We studied the effects of near-optimal (≈1200 μmol mol−1) and super-optimal CO2 levels (2400 μmol mol−1) on yield of two cultivars of hydroponically grown wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in 12 trials in growth chambers. Increasing CO2 from sub-optimal to near-optimal (350-1200 μmol mol−1) increased vegetative growth by 25% and seed yield by 15% in both cultivars. Yield increases were primarily the result of an increased number of heads per square meter. Further elevation of CO2 to 2500 μmol mol−1 reduced seed yield by 22% (P < 0.001) in cv. Veery-10 and by 15% (P < 0.001) in cv. USU-ApogeeS. uper-optimal CO2 did not decrease the number of heads per square meter, but reduced seeds per head by 10% and mass per seed by 11%. The toxic effect of CO2 was similar over a range of light levels fromh alf to full sunlight. Subsequenttr ials revealed that super-optimal CO2 during the interval between 2 wk before and after anthesis mimickedth e effect of constant super-optimal O2. Furthermore, near-optimal CO2 during the same interval mimicked the effect of constant near-optimal CO2. Nutrient concentration of leaves and heads was not affected by CO2. These results uggest that super-optimal CO2 inhibits some process that occurs near the time of seed set resulting in decreased seed set, seed mass, and yield.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1997.0011183X003700040031x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1997.0011183X003700040031x
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Incineration of biomass and utilization of product gas as a CO2 source for crop production in closed systems: Gas quality and phytotoxicity

1997

D.L. Bubenheim,M. Patterson,K. Wignarajah,M. Flynn

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

This study addressed the recycle of carbon from inedible biomass to CO2 for utilization in crop production. Earlier work identified incineration as an attractive approach to resource recovery from solid wastes because the products are well segregated. Given the effective separation of carbon into the gaseous product stream from the incinerator in the form of CO2 we captured the gaseous stream produced during incineration of wheat inedible biomass and utilized it as the CO2 source for crop production. Injection rate was based on maintenance of CO2 concentration in the growing environment. The crop grown in the closed system was lettuce. Carbon was primarily in the form of CO2 in the incinerator product gas with less than 8% of carbon compounds appearing as CO. Nitrogen oxides and organic compounds such as toluene, xylene, and benzene were present in the product gas at lower concentrations (<4 μmol mol−1); sulfur containing compounds were below the detection limits. Direct utilization of the gaseous product of the incinerator as the CO2 source was toxic to lettuce grown in a closed chamber. Net photosynthetic rates of the crop was suppressed more than 50% and visual injury symptoms were visible within 3 days of the introduction of the incinerator gas. Even the removal of the incinerator gas after two days of crop exposure and replacement with pure CO2 did not eliminate the toxic effects. Both organic and inorganic components of the incinerator gas are candidates for the toxin.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00850-8 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008508
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Identification of polymorphic DNA markers in cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea L)

1997

Guohao He,Channapatna S. Prakash

publication: Euphytica

Abstract

The detection of DNA polymorphism in cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is reported here for the first time. The DNA amplification fingerprinting (DAF) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) approaches were tested for their potential to detect genetic variation in peanut. The AFLP approach was more efficient as 43% of the primer combinations detected polymorphic DNA markers in contrast to 3% with the DAF approach. However, the number of polymorphic bands identified using primers selected in both approaches was comparable. In the DAF study, when 559 primers of varying types were screened, 17 (mostly 10-mer types) detected polymorphism producing an average of 3.7 polymorphic bands per primer with a total of 63 polymorphic markers. In the AFLP study, when 64 primer combinations (three selective nucleotides) corresponding to restriction enzymes Eco RI and Mse I were screened, 28 detected polymorphism. On an average, 6.7% of bands obtained from these 28 primer pairs were polymorphic resulting in a total of 111 AFLP markers. Our results demonstrate that both AFLP and DAF approaches can be employed to generate DNA markers in peanut and thus have potential in the marker-assisted genetic improvement and germplasm evaluation of this economically important crop.
doi: 10.1023/A:1002949813052 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1002949813052
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Hydroponic potato production on nutrients derived from anaerobically-processed potato plant residues

1997

C.L. Mackowiak,G.W. Stutte,J.L. Garland,B.W. Finger,L.M. Ruffe

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Bioregenerative methods are being developed for recycling plant minerals from harvested inedible biomass as part of NASA's Advanced Life Support (ALS) research. Anaerobic processing produces secondary metabolites, a food source for yeast production, while providing a source of water soluble nutrients for plant growth. Since NH4-N is the nitrogen product, processing the effluent through a nitrification reactor was used to convert this to NO3-N, a more acceptable form for plants. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv. Norland plants were used to test the effects of anaerobically-produced effluent after processing through a yeast reactor or nitrification reactor. These treatments were compared to a mixed-N treatment (75:25, NO3:NH4) or a NO3-N control, both containing only reagent-grade salts. Plant growth and tuber yields were greatest in the NO3-N control and yeast reactor effluent treatments, which is noteworthy, considering the yeast reactor treatment had high organic loading in the nutrient solution and concomitant microbial activity.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00935-6 pubmed: 11542584 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797009356
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Integration of waste processing and biomass production systems as part of the KSC Breadboard project

1997

J.L. Garland,C.L. Mackowiak,R.F. Strayer,B.W. Finger

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

After initial emphasis on large-scale baseline crop tests, the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Breadboard project has begun to evaluate long-term operation of the biomass production system with increasing material closure. Our goal is to define the minimum biological processing necessary to make waste streams compatible with plant growth in hydroponic systems, thereby recycling nutrients into plant biomass and recovering water via atmospheric condensate. Initial small and intermediate-scale studies focused on the recycling of nutrients contained in inedible plant biomass. Studies conducted between 1989-1992 indicated that the majority of nutrients could be rapidly solubilized in water, but the direct use of this crop "leachate" was deleterious to plant growth due to the presence of soluble organic compounds. Subsequent studies at both the intermediate scale and in the large-scale Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) have indicated that aerobic microbiological processing of crop residue prior to incorporation into recirculating hydroponic solutions eliminated any phytotoxic effect, even when the majority of the plant nutrient demand was provided from recycled biomass during long term studies (i.e. up to 418 days). Current and future studies are focused on optimizing biological processing of both plant and human waste streams.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00847-8 pubmed: 11542556 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117797008478
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Anatomical features of pepper plants (Capsicum annuum L.) grown under red light-emitting diodes supplemented with blue or far-red light

1997

A SCHUERGER

publication: Annals of botany

Abstract

Pepper plants (Capsicum annuum L. cv., Hungarian Wax) were grown under metal halide (MH) lamps or light-emitting diode (LED) arrays with different spectra to determine the effects of light quality on plant anatomy of leaves and stems. One LED (660) array supplied 90% red light at 660 nm (25nm band-width at half-peak height) and 1% far-red light between 700-800nm. A second LED (660/735) array supplied 83% red light at 660nm and 17% far-red light at 735nm (25nm band-width at half-peak height). A third LED (660/blue) array supplied 98% red light at 660nm, 1% blue light between 350-550nm, and 1% far-red light between 700-800nm. Control plants were grown under broad spectrum metal halide lamps. Plants were gron at a mean photon flux (300-800nm) of 330 micromol m-2 s-1 under a 12 h day-night photoperiod. Significant anatomical changes in stem and leaf morphologies were observed in plants grown under the LED arrays compared to plants grown under the broad-spectrum MH lamp. Cross-sectional areas of pepper stems, thickness of secondary xylem, numbers of intraxylary phloem bundles in the periphery of stem pith tissues, leaf thickness, numbers of choloplasts per palisade mesophyll cell, and thickness of palisade and spongy mesophyll tissues were greatest in peppers grown under MH lamps, intermediate in plants grown under the 660/blue LED array, and lowest in peppers grown under the 660 or 660/735 LED arrays. Most anatomical features of pepper stems and leaves were similar among plants grown under 660 or 660/735 LED arrays. The effects of spectral quality on anatomical changes in stem and leaf tissues of peppers generally correlate to the amount of blue light present in the primary light source.
doi: 10.1006/anbo.1996.0341 pubmed: 11540425 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305736496903418
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On-Orbit and Ground Performance of the PGBA Plant Growth Facility.

1997

A. Hoehn,D. J. Chamberlain,J. M. Clawson,S. W. Forsyth,D. S. Hanna,M. B. Horner,P. Scovazzo,K. S. Sterrett,L. S. Stodieck,P. W. Todd,A. G. Heyenga,M. H. Kliss

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

PGBA, a plant growth facility developed for commercial space biotechnology research, successfully grew a total of 50 plants (6 species) during 10 days aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavor (STS-77), and has reflown aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-83 for 4 days and STS-94 for 16 days) with 55 plants and 10 species. The PGBA life support system provides atmospheric, thermal, and humidity control as well as lighting and nutrient supply in a 33 liter microgravity plant growth chamber. The atmosphere treatment system removes ethylene and other hydrocarbons, actively controls CO₂ replenishment, and provides passive O₂ control. Temperature and humidity are actively controlled.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44650450
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Comparison studies of candidate nutrient delivery systems for plant cultivation in space

1997

Gregory D. Goins,Howard G. Levine,Cheryl L. Mackowiak,Raymond M. Wheeler,Jim D. Carr,Douglas W. Ming

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

A reliable nutrient delivery system is essential for long-term cultivation of plants in space. At the Kennedy Space Center, a series of ground-based tests are being conducted to compare candidate plant nutrient delivery systems for space. To date, our major focus has concentrated on the Porous Tube Plant Nutrient Delivery System, the ASTROCULTURE™ System, and a zeoponic plant growth substrate. The merits of each system are based upon the performance of wheat supported over complete growth cycles. To varying degrees, each system supported wheat biomass production and showed distinct patterns for plant nutrient uptake and water use.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44650430
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Human functions in a biological life support system

1997

J. I. Gitelson,Yu. N. Okladnikov

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

A human life support system based on environment regeneration by plant photosynthesis has been developed and investigated. The system matter turnover involves humans not as an object to be sustained only, but also as a component whose metabolism provides for reliable and steady operation of the entire system. Experiments that lasted for several months demonstrated feasibility to completely regenerate atmosphere, water and 93% of the plant part of human diet in such a system. Self-sustained operation of the system requires the human to control all processes running within the system. Long-standing (many years) observations of health of a large group of people who took part in experiments revealed no pathological changes proving the adequacy of the system habitat to human requirements.
doi: 10.4271/972513 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/972513/
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OCAM-2: A second generation bioregenerative life support system model

1997

Alan Drysdale

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

A second-generation system model has been developed to account for the movement of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen through the various life support system components. It accounts for edible and inedible biomass and the water content of plant materials, and models various crops based on growth and transpiration rate tables, including multiple overlapping crops of the same or different species. It also calculates mass, volume, energy use, heat rejection, and manpower required for each component, including varying power use, heat rejection, and manpower as a function of the crop, and equivalent mass (EM) for each cost factor and for the system. Results are displayed graphically. The model was developed using G2, a commercially available modeling package. Enhancements are under consideration to improve the modeling of waste management and to account for minerals and variations in crew metabolism. The ability to use data directly from the NASA KSC ABF to drive this model is currently being implemented, with the intent to investigate model-based control.
doi: 10.4271/972291 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/972291/
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KSC Advanced Life Support Breadboard: Facility description and testing objectives

1997

John C. Sager

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The Breadboard Project at Kennedy Space Center has focused on the development of the bioregenerative life support components, crop plants for water, air, and food production and bioreactors for recycling of waste. The keystone of the Breadboard Project has been the Biomass Production Chamber (BPC), which is supported by 15 environmentally controlled chambers and 2150 m² (23,200 ft²) of laboratory facilities. The Project objectives, in support of the ALS Program, utilize these facilities for large-scale testing of components and development of required technologies for the human testbeds at JSC, flight experiments, and ALS research to enable a Mars mission.
doi: 10.4271/972341 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/972341/
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Prospects for single-cell oil production in lunar life support systems

1997

Jean Hunter,Shuwei Lin,Alan Drysdale,Yael Vodovotz

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Current projections for the crop mix in the Bio-Plex and the future Lunar bioregenerative life support system indicate that without supplemental oil production, the crew's diet will be extremely low in fat, with little refined oil available for food processing or preparation. Although soybeans, peanuts and dwarf brassica (similar to canola) have been suggested as oil crops, each one poses significant problems either in horticulture, harvesting, productivity or byproduct utilization. An alternative to plant oils is “single-cell oil” or SCO. Lipid-accumulating “oleaginous” micro-organisms may accumulate up to 60% of their dry weight as triglycerides. Their high growth rates enable them to synthesize lipids with far greater productivity than higher plant systems. The current top candidate species for use in a bioregenerative system is a yeast, Cryptococcus curvatus.
Oleaginous micro-organisms can be cultivated heterotrophically or autotrophically, depending on the species and bioreactor type. Initial estimates have suggested that the needed quantity of oil can be produced heterotrophically from the inedible biomass expected to be generated in a bioregenerative system. Heterotrophic production would be expected to reduce the system equivalent mass.
Any oil produced on station will need to satisfy various requirements for functionality, safety and stability. Anticipated uses include baked goods, stir-frying, sauces, and bread spreads. Standards for the oil's physicochemical properties - melting curve, color, odor, flavor, heat stability and storage stability - must be established based on anticipated uses, to focus development work and allow fair comparison of SCO, locally produced higher plant oils, and “imported” oils.
This paper identifies the state of the art in production of microbial oils, presents preliminary experimental results, describes initial criteria for the chemical and culinary properties of these oils, and evaluates the economics of single-cell oil production in a bioregenerative life support system.

doi: 10.4271/972365 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/972365/
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Influence of changes in daylength and carbon dioxide on the growth of potato

1997

R. M. Wheeler,T. W. Tibbitts

publication: Annals of botany

Abstract

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) are highly productive in mid- to high-latitude areas where photoperiods change significantly throughout the growing season. To study the effects of changes in photoperiod on growth and tuber development of potato cv. Denali, plants were grown for 112 d with 400 micromol m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) under a 12-h photoperiod (short days, SD), a 24-h photoperiod (long days, LD), and combinations where plants were moved between the two photoperiods 28, 56, or 84 d after planting. Plants given LD throughout growth received the greatest total daily PPF and produced the greatest tuber yields. At similar levels of total PPF, plants given SD followed by LD yielded greater tuber dry mass (DM) than plants given LD followed by SD. Stem DM per plant, leaf DM, and total plant DM all increased with an increasing proportion of LD and increasing daily PPF, regardless of the daylength sequence. When studies were repeated, but at an enriched (1000 micromol mol-1) CO2 concentration, overall growth trends were similar, with high CO2 resulting in greater stem length, stem DM, leaf DM, and total plant DM; but high CO2 did not increase tuber DM.
doi: 10.1006/anbo.1996.9999 pubmed: 11540428 link: https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-abstract/79/5/529/2389857
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Proximate composition, amino acid profile, fatty acid composition, and mineral content of peanut seeds hydroponically grown at elevated CO2 levels

1997

Wen-Hsin Wu,John Y. Lu,Alecia R. Jones,Desmond G. Mortley,Philip A. Loretan,Conrad K. Bonsi,Walter A. Hill

publication: Journal of Agricultural …

Partial Abstract

Peanut plants (Arachis hypogaea L. cv. Georgia Red) were grown hydroponically using a recirculating nutrient film technique. The effect of CO2 enrichment on nutritive composition of hydroponic peanut seeds was examined at two elevated CO2 levels (700 and 1400 ppm) that simulate potential conditions in National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Controlled Ecological Life-Support Systems (CELSS) and compared to ambient CO2 condition in hydroponics (the control). Plants were harvested at 97 days after planting, and ...
doi: 10.1021/jf970077f link: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf970077f
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More efficient plants: A consequence of rising atmospheric CO2?

1997

B.G. Drake, M.A. Gonzalez-Meler, S.P. Long

publication: Annual review of plant …

Partial Abstract

▪ Abstract The primary effect of the response of plants to rising atmospheric CO2 (Ca) is to increase resource use efficiency. Elevated Ca reduces stomatal conductance and transpiration and improves water use efficiency, and at the same time it stimulates higher rates of photosynthesis and increases light-use efficiency. Acclimation of photosynthesis during long-term exposure to elevated Ca reduces key enzymes of the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle, and this increases nutrient use efficiency. Improved soil–water ...
doi: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.48.1.609 link: https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.arplant.48.1.609
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Blue light requirement for crop plants used in bioregenerative life support systems

1998

N.C. Yorio, R.M. Wheeler, G.D. Goins, M.M. Sanwo-Lewandowski, C.L. Mackowiak, C.S. Brown, J.C. Sager, G.W. Stutte

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

As part of NASA's Advanced Life Support Program, the Breadboard Project at Kennedy Space Center is investigating the feasibility of using crop plants in bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) for long-duration space missions. Several types of electric lamps have been tested to provide radiant energy for plants in a BLSS. These lamps vary greatly in terms of spectral quality resulting in differences in growth and morphology of the plants tested. Broad spectrum or "white" light sources (e.g., metal halide and fluorescent lamps) provide an adequate spectrum for normal growth and morphology; however, they are not as electrically efficient as are low-pressure sodium (LPS) or high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps. Although LPS and HPS, as well as the newly tested red light-emitting diodes (LEDs), have good photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) efficiencies, they are deficient in blue light. Results with several of the crops tested for BLSS (wheat, potato, soybean, lettuce, and radish) have shown a minimum amount of blue light (approximately 30 micromoles m-2 s-1) is necessary for normal growth and development. For example, the lack of sufficient blue light in these lamps has resulted in increased stem elongation and significant reductions in photosynthesis and yield. To avoid problems with blue-deficient lamps and maximize yield, sufficient intensity of HPS or blue light supplementation with red LEDs or LPS lamps is required to meet spectral requirements of crops for BLSS.
pubmed: 11541667 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00002
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Sweetpotato in a vegetarian menu plan for NASA’s Advanced Life Support Program

1998

C.D. Wilson, R.D. Pace, E. Bromfield, G. Jones, J.Y. Lu

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Sweet potato has been selected as one of the crops for NASA’s Advanced Life Support Program. Sweet potato primarily provides carbohydrate–an important energy source, beta-carotene, and ascorbic acid to a space diet. This study focuses on menus incorporating two sets of sweet potato recipes developed at Tuskegee University. One set includes recipes for 10 vegetarian products containing from 6% to 20% sweet potato on a dry weight basis (pancakes, waffles, tortillas, bread, pie, pound cake, pasta, vegetable patties, doughnuts, and pretzels) that have been formulated, subjected to sensory evaluation, and determined to be acceptable. These recipes and the other set of recipes, not tested organoleptically, were substituted in a 10-day vegetarian menu plan developed by the American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS) Kennedy Space Center Biomass Processing Technical Panel. At least one recipe containing sweet potato was included in each meal. An analysis of the nutritional quality of this menu compared to the original AIBS menu found improved beta-carotene content (p < 0.05). All other nutrients, except vitamin B6, and calories were equal to and in some instances greater than those listed for NASA’s Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems RDA. These results suggest that sweet potato products can be used successfully in menus developed for space with the added benefit of increased nutrient value and dietary variety.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000003/art00010
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Intracanopy lighting of cowpea canopies in controlled environments

1998

J.M. Frantz, C. Chun, R.J. Joly, C.A. Mitchell

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Traditional designs for plant-growth lighting in space life support systems irradiate tops of closed foliar canopies while canopy understories are light limited. "Intracanopy lighting," a technique whereby plants are allowed to grow up and around multiple layers of low-intensity lamps that irradiate interior portions of canopies, can potentially enhance productivity while reducing overall energy consumption. Intracanopy lighting of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) was optimized by varying stand densities and lining growth compartments with light-scattering or reflective films. Yield rates using intracanopy lighting were less than those obtained with traditional lighting strategies. However, yield efficiencies and energetic conversion efficiencies, parameters that put edible yield in terms of inedible biomass, energetic, spatial, and temporal penalties, indicate intracanopy lighting is more efficient in crop production. Single-leaf photosynthetic rates indicate all leaves participate in net carbon gain regardless of age and position within a canopy.
pubmed: 11541675 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00010
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Factors enhancing Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated gene transfer in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L

1998

Marceline Egnin,Adalgisa Mora,Channapatna S. Prakash

publication: In vitro cellular & developmental biology. Plant : journal of the Tissue Culture Association

Abstract

Parameters enhancing Agrobacterium-mediated transfer of foreign genes to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cells were investigated. An intron-containing beta-glucuronidase uidA (gusA) gene under the transcriptional control of CaMV 35S promoter served as a reporter. Transformation frequency was evaluated by scoring the number of sectors expressing GUS activity on leaf and epicotyl explants. The 'Valencia Select' market type cv. New Mexico was more amenable to Agrobacterium transformation than the 'runner' market type cultivars tested (Florunner, Georgia Runner, Sunrunner, or South Runner). The disarmed Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA101 was superior in facilitating the transfer of uidA gene to peanut cells compared to the disarmed strain C58. Rinsing of explants in half-strength Murashige-Skoog (MS) media prior to infection by Agrobacterium significantly increased the transformation efficiency. The use of cocultivation media containing high auxin [1.0 or 2.5 mg/l (4.53 micromolar or 11.31 micromolar) 2,4-D] and low cytokinin [0.25 or 0.5 mg/l (1.0 micromolar or 2.0 micromolar) BA] promoted higher transformation than either hormone-free or thidiazuron-containing medium. The polarity of the epicotyl during cocultivation was important; explants incubated in an inverted (vertically) manner followed by a vertically upright position resulted in improved transformation and shoot regeneration frequencies. Preculture of explants in MS basal medium or with 2.5 mg thidiazuron per l prior to infection drastically decreased the number of transformed zones. The optimized protocol was used to obtain transient transformation frequencies ranging from 12% to 36% for leaf explants, 15% to 42% for epicotyls. Initial evidence of transformation was obtained by polymerase chain reaction and subsequently confirmed by Southern analysis of regenerated plants.
doi: 10.1007/BF02822740 pubmed: 11760772 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02822740
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The role of ethylene in the development of constant-light injury of potato and tomato

1998

Kent E. Cushman,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for …

Partial Abstract

The role of ethylene in the development of constant-light injury of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) was investigated. In one study, silver thiosulfate (STS) was applied to the foliage offour potato cultivars growing under constant light. Leaf area and shoot dry mass of “Kennebec" and “Superior”, cultivars normally injured by constant light, were greater (P< 0.05) than those of control plants given foliar applications of distilled water. Examination of STS-treated “Kennebec” leaflets ...
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.123.2.239 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/233865144_The_Role_of_Ethylene...
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Bioregenerative [correction of bioregnerative] life support: not a picnic.

1998

W.M. Knott

publication: Gravitational and space biology bulletin : publication of the American Society for Gravitational and Space Biology

Abstract

If humans are to live permanently in space, regenerative life support systems are an enabling technology and must replace the picnic approach of taking all supplies required for each mission. These systems are classified by technologies as either physical/chemical or bioregenerative. Both of these system-types can recycle water, remove carbon dioxide, produce oxygen, and recover essential elements from waste products. Bioregenerative can also produce food, thus, making it essential if humans are to exist in space independent of earth. A solely bioregenerative life support system includes plants as a biomass production module and microbial organisms in bioreactors as a resource recovery module. In the Advanced Life Support Program, bioregenerative life support systems are being investigated through a research and technology development project which includes large scale testing as part of the Breadboard Project and human tests conducted in the soon to be constructed BioPlex facility. Research and technology development efforts are directed toward optimizing biomass productivity in controlled chambers by developing light weight, energy efficient, and automated systems; recycling liquid and solid wastes; baselining the operation of bioreactors; determining system microbial stability; assessing chemical contamination; and building models required for long term system operations. The program will include space flight studies in the near future to determine if these life support technologies will function in microgravity. When a bioregenerative system is finally incorporated into a mission, the conversion from a picnic and resupply mentality to permanent recycling and independence from earth will be complete.
pubmed: 11540636 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11540636
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Simultaneous and discriminative measurement system of photosynthesis and respiration of plants using 13 CO2. Consideration of application to material circulation analysis in CELSS

1998

J. Futami, I. Nishi, T. Takakura, E. Goto

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

A measurement system, which measured gross photosynthesis and respiration of the plant discriminately and simultaneously, was developed. The measurement was carried out by controlling 13CO2 and 12CO2 concentration of plant's ambient gas adequately. To formulate the equations of gross photosynthetic CO2 absorption rate (VPCO2) and respiratory CO2 evolution rate (VRCO2) two assumptions were made. One is that the evolution of the 13CO2 absorbed by photosynthesis is negligible during the measurement. Another is that 12CO2 and 13CO2 are absorbed at the same rate by photosynthesis. In order to verify the measurement system, VPCO2 and VRCO2 of komatsuna leaf were measured by semi-closed circulation method and open method. In this paper, the formulation method and the measurement system is shown. And it is considered that the application of the measurement method to the material circulation analysis in CELSS.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku1989.10.2_7 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku1989/10/2/10_2_7/_article/-char/en
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Biocompatibility of sweetpotato and peanut in a hydroponic system

1998

D.G. Mortley,P.A. Loretan,W.A. Hill,C.K. Bonsi,C.E. Morris,R. Hall,D. Sullen

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

'Georgia Red' peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and TU-82-155 sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam] were grown in monocultured or intercropped recirculating hydroponic systems in a greenhouse using the nutrient film technique (NFT). The objective was to determine whether growth and subsequent yield would be affected by intercropping. Treatments were sweetpotato monoculture (SP), peanut monoculture (PN), and sweetpotato and peanut grown in separate NFT channels but sharing a common nutrient solution (SP-PN). Greenhouse conditions ranged from 24 to 33 degrees C, 60% to 90% relative humidity (RH), and photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 200 to 1700 micromoles m-2 s-1. Sweetpotato cuttings (15 cm long) and 14-day-old seedlings of peanuts were planted into growth channels (0.15 x 0.15 x 1.2 m). Plants were spaced 25 cm apart within and 25 cm apart between growing channels. A modified half-Hoagland solution with a 1 N: 2.4 K ratio was used. Solution pH was maintained between 5.5 and 6.0 for treatments involving SP and 6.4 and 6.7 for PN. Electrical conductivity (EC) ranged between 1100 and 1200 microS cm-1. The number of storage roots per sweetpotato plant was similar for both SP and SP-PN. Storage root fresh and dry mass were 29% and 36% greater, respectively, for plants in the SP-PN treatment than for plants in the SP treatment. The percent dry mass of the storage roots, dry mass of fibrous and pencil roots, and the length-to-diameter ratio of storage roots were similar for SP and SP-PN sweetpotato plants. Likewise, foliage fresh and dry mass and harvest index were not significantly influenced by treatment. Total dry mass was 37% greater for PN than for SP-PN peanut plants, and pod dry mass was 82% higher. Mature and total seed dry mass and fibrous root dry mass were significantly greater for PN than for SP-PN plants. Harvest index (HI) was similar for both treatments. Root length tended to be lower for seedlings grown in the nutrient solution from the SP-PN treatment.
pubmed: 11795324 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11795324
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Is blue light good or bad for plants?

1998

T.A.O. Dougher, B.G. Bugbee

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Blue photons are energetically expensive so the most energy-efficient lamps contain the least blue light. Blue photons are not used efficiently in photosynthesis, but blue light has dramatic effects on plant development. We studied the growth and development of soybean, wheat, and lettuce plants under high-pressure sodium and metal halide lamps with yellow filters creating five fractions of blue light (0.5%, 3.5%, 6%, 18%, and 26% blue) at 500 μmol m−2 s−1 and (< 0.1%, 1.7%, 6%, 12%, and 26%) at 200 mol m−2 s−1. The response was species dependent. Lettuce was highly sensitive to blue light fraction and had an optimum dry weight and leaf area at about 6% blue, but results were complicated by sensitivity to lamp type. Wheat and soybean were less sensitive to blue light, but dry mass and leaf area decreased steadily with increasing blue light. Blue light fraction significantly affected specific leaf area (SLA, m2 kg−1) and chlorophyll in lettuce, but had no significant effect on wheat and soybeans. The data suggest that lettuce benefits from some added blue light, but soybean and wheat may not.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00003
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The effects of intracanopy lighting on cowpea production

1998

A.B. Stephens, R.D. Berghage, C.A. Bernecker, E.S. Sewars, M.C. Shuey, P.N. Walker

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Utilizing a combination of above-canopy and intracanopy lighting may prove highly beneficial in a Lunar Controlled Ecological Life Support System (LCELSS) as a means of increasing volumetric efficiency of plant growth. Intracanopy lighting was not found to be detrimental to plant tissue and production per plant when cowpeas were grown using sand culture. Specifically, intracanopy lighting did not adversely influence leaf area, dry mass, or wet mass production. Although no significant differences were found when 25% of the lighting was placed intracanopy, this is important because it indicates that there is potential in saving space for controlled growth systems. The use of intracanopy lighting would allow plant trays to be “stacked" closer, thereby increasing volumetric plant density.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00011
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Microwave lamp characterization

1998

Stephan Holtrup,Arash Sadeghfam,Holger Heuermann,Peter Awakowicz

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The effects of time and intensity of supplemental blue lighting during morning twilight on growth and physiological performance of cucumber seedlings

1998

I.K. Sung, M. Kiyota, T. Hirano

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L. cv. Naoyosi) were grown hydroponically at air temperatures of 28/24 degrees C (D/N) and photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 300 micromoles m-2 s-1, in a walk-in type growth cabinet equipped with 3-band fluorescent lamps. Plants were subjected to supplemental blue lighting applied daily just before the 14-h photoperiod (morning twilight) under PPFs of 0, 10, 30, 100, and 200 micromoles m-2 s-1. Treatment periods were 0, 5, 30, or 120 min. Growth and morphological parameters were measured after 12 and 14 days of treatment. On the 13th day of treatment, the stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration rate (Tr), and net photosynthetic rate (Pn) were measured under 3-band fluorescent lamps at a PPF of 200 micromoles m-2 s-1. After 17-19 days of treatment, changes in Pn effected by supplemental blue light were measured continuously for 30 min. Treatment with 5 min of blue lighting promoted more growth than treatment for 30 or 120 min. Similarly, gs, Tr, and Pn were the greatest in plants grown with supplemental blue light of 30 micromoles m-2 s-1 and 100 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF for 5 min. Pn in plants grown under blue light of 30 micromoles m-2 s-1 for 5 min increased by 60% compared with that of control plants. Pn rose and was maintained at a higher level with 5-min blue lighting treatment. Supplemental lighting with blue light in the morning twilight is considered to be effective for seedling growth, and can be utilized for bionursery facilities to increase efficiency of plant production.
pubmed: 11541669 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00004
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Effects of light and air velocity on air temperature, water vapor pressure, and CO2 concentrations inside a plant canopy under an artificial lighting condition

1998

Y. Kitaya, T. Shibuya, T. Kozai, C. Kubota

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

In order to characterize environmental variables inside a plant canopy under artificial lighting in the CELSS, we investigated the effects of light intensity and air velocity on air temperature, water vapor pressure, and CO2 concentration inside a plant canopy. Under a PPF of 500 micromoles m-2 s-1, air temperature was 2-3 degrees C higher, water vapor pressure was 0.6 kPa higher, and CO2 concentration was 25-35 micromoles mol-1 lower at heights ranging from 0 to 30 mm below the canopy than at a height 60 mm above the canopy. Increasing the PPF increased air temperature and water vapor pressure and decreased CO2 concentration inside the canopy. The air temperature was lower and the CO2 concentration was higher inside the canopy at an air velocity of 0.3 m s-1 than at an air velocity of 0.1 m s-1. The environmental variables inside the canopy under a high light intensity were characterized by higher air temperature, higher vapor pressure, and lower CO2 concentration than those outside the canopy.
pubmed: 11541677 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00012
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Performance evaluation of the commercial plant bioprocessing facility

1998

W. Zhou, R.J. Bula, N.A. Duffie

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The demand for highly flexible manipulation of plant growth generations, modification of specific plant processes, and genetically engineered crop varieties in a controlled environment has led to the development of a Commercial Plant Biotechnology Facility (CPBF). The CPBF is a quad-middeck locker playload to be mounted in the EXPRESS Rack that will be installed in the International Space Station (ISS). The CPBF integrates proven ASTROCULTURE” technologies, state-of-the-art control software, and fault tolerance and recovery technologies together to increase overall system efficiency, reliability, robustness, flexibility, and user friendliness. The CPBF provides a large plant growing volume for the support of commercial plant biotechnology studies and/or applications for long time plant research in a reduced gravity environment. The CPBF consists of six major subsystems: temperature control; humidity control; lighting control; water/nutrient delivery; the atmospheric control, and information (data, command, and video) management. This paper presents the performance evaluation of the temperature, humidity, and lighting subsystems. Evaluations of other subsystems are being conducted.
doi: 10.4271/981666 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/981666/
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Steady-state system mass balance for the BIO-Plex

1998

Cory K. Finn

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

A steady-state system mass balance calculation was performed to investigate design issues regarding the storage and/or processing of solid waste. In the initial stages of BIO-Plex, only a certain percentage of the food requirement will be satisfied through crop growth. Since some food will be supplied to the system, an equivalent amount of waste will accumulate somewhere in the system. It is a system design choice as to where the mass should accumulate in the system. Here we consider two approaches. One is to let solid waste accumulate in order to reduce the amount of material processing that is needed. The second is to process all of the solid waste to reduce solid waste storage and then either resupply oxygen or add physical/chemical (P/C) processors to recover oxygen from the excess carbon dioxide and water that is produced by the solid waste processor.
doi: 10.4271/981747 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/981747/
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Mass Transport in a Spaceflight Plant Growth Chamber.

1998

A. Hoehn,J. Clawson,A. G. Heyenga,P. Scovazzo,K. S. Sterrett,L. S. Stodieck,P. W. Todd,M. H. Kliss

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

The Plant Generic BioProcessing Apparatus (PGBA), a plant growth facility developed for commercial space bio- technology research, has flown successfully on 3 spaceflight missions for 4, 10 and 16 days. The envi- ronmental control systems of this plant growth chamber (28 liter/0.075 m2) provide atmospheric, thermal, and humidity control, as well as lighting and nutrient supply. Typical performance profiles of water transpiration and dehumidification, carbon dioxide absorption (photosyn- thesis) and respiration rates in the PGBA unit (on orbit and ground) are presented. Data were collected on sin- gle and mixed crops. Design options and considerations for the different sub-systems are compared with those of similar hardware.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44735746
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Design and implementation of a vegetarian food system for a closed chamber test

1998

V. Kloeris, Y. Vodovotz, L. Bye, C.Quay Stiller, E. Lane

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is conducting a series of closed chamber environmental tests, called the Lunar Mars Life Support Test Project (LMLSTP), which is designed to provide data for the development of surface habitats for the Moon and Mars. These surface habitats will be closed loop environmental systems that will recycle air and water and will grow crops to provide food for crew members. In conjunction with these tests, the Food Systems Engineering Facility at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) tested a 10-day vegetarian menu based on items that can be made from the projected crop list for these habitats. The planned menu met most of the nutritional requirements of the four crew members and was found highly acceptable. Automation of the food preparation and processing equipment was strongly recommended because the preparation time was judged excessive. The waste generated was largely due to leftovers.
pubmed: 11541681 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00016
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Development and growth of potato tubers in microgravity

1998

M.E. Cook,J.L. Croxdale,T.W. Tibbitts,G. Goins,C.S. Brown,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A potato explant consisting of a leaf, its axillary bud, and a small segment of stem will develop a tuber in 10-14 days when grown on earth. The tubers develop from the axillary buds and accumulate starch derived from sugars produced through photosynthesis and/or mobilized from leaf tissue. Potato explants were harvested and maintained in the Astroculture (TM) unit, a plant growth chamber designed for spaceflight. The unit provides an environment with controlled temperature, humidity, CO2 level, light intensity, and a nutrient delivery system. The hardware was loaded onto the space shuttle Columbia 24 hours prior to the launch of the STS-73 mission. Explant leaf tissue appeared turgid and green for the first 11 days of flight, but then became chlorotic and eventually necrotic by the end of the mission. The same events occurred to ground control explants with approximately the same timing. At the end of the 16-day mission, tubers were present on each explant. The size and shape of the space-grown tubers were similar to the ground-control tubers. The arrangement of cells in the tuber interior and at the exterior in the periderm was similar in both environments. Starch and protein were present in the tubers grown in space and on the ground. The range in starch grain size was similar in tubers from both environments, but the distribution of grains into size classes differed somewhat, with the space-grown tubers having more small grains than the ground control tubers. Proteinaceous crystals were found in tubers formed in each condition.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00197-x pubmed: 11541357 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311779700197X
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Wetland systems for bioregenerative reclamation of wastewater: From closed systems to developing countries

1998

M. Nelson

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Results are presented from constructed wetland systems designed to treat wastewater in Akumal, Quintana Roo, Mexico, which was developed after prior experience with the Biosphere 2 closed ecological system wetland systems. These systems illustrate the congruity of needs in advanced life support systems and in solving social and environmental problems in developing countries. For sustainable food production for life support, closed ecological systems need to bioregenerate and recycle nutrient-rich wastewater. Developing countries need low-tech ecologically engineered systems that minimize requirements for capital, nonrenewable energy, and technical expertise. Biosphere 2's surface flow wetlands covered 41 m2 and treated the wastewater from eight inhabitants, laboratories, and domestic animals during the 1991-1993 closure experiment. The Mexican wetlands are subsurface flow wetlands using limestone gravel as substrate. Two wetland systems treat sewage from 40 people and cover 131 m2. During the initial year of operation, the wetlands in Akumal reduced BOD 86%, TSS 39%, total P 80%, total N 75%, and coliform bacteria 99.85%. Phosphorus uptake in the limestone gravel was around 6 mg/kg. High biodiversity, with 70 plant species, was maintained in the Akumal constructed wetlands 1.5 years after planting. The Shannon diversity index was 4.7 (base 2). Plant diversity was slightly less than tropical forest ecosystems of the region, but far greater than biodiversity in natural mangrove wetlands.
pubmed: 11876204 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000003/art00012
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Predicting lettuce canopy photosynthesis with statistical and neural network models

1998

Jay Frick,Cyrille Precetti,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

An artificial neural network (NN) and a statistical regression model were developed to predict canopy photosynthetic rates (Pn) for 'Waldman's Green' leaf lettuce (Latuca sativa L.). All data used to develop and test the models were collected for crop stands grown hydroponically and under controlled-environment conditions. In the NN and regression models, canopy Pn was predicted as a function of three independent variables: shootzone CO2 concentration (600 to 1500 micromoles mol-1), photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) (600 to 1100 micromoles m-2 s-1), and canopy age (10 to 20 days after planting). The models were used to determine the combinations of CO2 and PPF setpoints required each day to maintain maximum canopy Pn. The statistical model (a third-order polynomial) predicted Pn more accurately than the simple NN (a three-layer, fully connected net). Over an 11-day validation period, average percent difference between predicted and actual Pn was 12.3% and 24.6% for the statistical and NN models, respectively. Both models lost considerable accuracy when used to determine relatively long-range Pn predictions (> or = 6 days into the future).
pubmed: 11542672 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11542672
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Rapid assessment of primer combinations and recovery of AFLP products using ethidium bromide staining

1998

David L. Scott,Michon D. Walker,Clarence W. Clarck,Channapatna S. Prakash,Kenneth L. Deahl

publication: Plant Molecular Biology Reporter

Abstract

AFLP™ is a novel high-resolution fingerprinting method that can be used to delineate intraspecific relationships among a large variety of fungi and plants. We demonstrate that with the appropriate technical modifications, ethidium bromide staining and non-denaturing polyacryalmide minigels can be an inexpensive and time saving alternative for screening DNA samples for suitable AFLP primer pairs. Furthermore, the recovery of ethidium bromide stained polymorphic DNA fragments is not as tedious as the recovery of isotopic DNA fragments.
doi: 10.1023/A:1007416607757 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1007416607757
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Studies on flower initiation of super-dwarf wheat under stress conditions simulating those on the space station Mir

1998

Liming Jiang,Frank B. Salisbury,William F. Campbell,John G. Carman,Rubin Nan

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

Super-Dwarf wheat plants were grown in growth chambers under 12 treatments with three photoperiods (18 h, 21 h, 24 h) and four carbon dioxide (CO2) levels (360, 1,200, 3,000 and 7,000 micromoles mol-1). Carbon dioxide concentrations affected flower initiation rates of Super-Dwarf wheat. The optimum CO2 level for flower initiation and development was 1,200 micromoles mol-1. Super-optimum CO2 levels delayed flower initiation, but did not decrease final flower bud number per head. Longer photoperiods not only accelerated flower initiation rates, but also decreased deleterious effects of super-optimum CO2. Flower bud size and head length at the same developmental stage were larger under longer photoperiods, but final flower bud number was not affected by photoperiod.
doi: 10.1016/s0176-1617(98)80146-6 pubmed: 11540591 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161798801466
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Evaluation of light transmission and distribution materials for lunar and Martian bioregenerative life support

1998

J.L. Cuello, P. Sadler, D. Jack, E. Ono, K.A. Jordan

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The materials that were selected and evaluated in this study in the context of bioregenerative advanced life support included polymer optical cables, for transmission of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), and light pipe, woven optical pad and light-emitting fiber (LEF) for PPF distribution. All materials exhibited significant fidelity in transmitting the spectral characteristics of the artificial lluminator's Xenon-Metal Halide lamp. The PPF attenuation values for the polymer cables EL-200, EL-300, EL-400, and EL-500 were not significantly distinguishable from one another nor from that of the fused-silica cable of 0.34 dB/m. With the exception of EL-100 and EL-700, which had significantly lower PPF transmission efficiencies of 54.9%/m and 66.6%/m, respectively, all the other polymer cables had PPF transmission efficiencies of over 85%/m which, except for EL-300, were not significantly different from one another nor from that of the fused-silica cable of 93.2%/m. The highest PPF output efficiency achieved for the 7.1-cm light pipe 14.7%, for its maximum pipe length of 100 cm. At a constant pipe length of 50 cm, the PPF output efficiency of the 10-cm light pipe of 0.71% was significantly lower than that of the 7.1-cm light pipe of 10.54%. The PPF output for the woven optical pad was determined to be 36.3%. The PPF output efficiency for the LEF without the optic fastener was determined to be 27.1%, whereas that for the LEF with the optic fastener was 50.3%, that is, the maximum value of PPF output efficiency in the study. The polymer optical cables, light pipe, woven optical pad, and LEF exhibited significant regularity and symmetry in their PPF output spatial distributions.
pubmed: 11871446 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000004/art00002
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Spectral properties of microwave-powered sulfur lamps in comparison to sunlight and high-pressure sodium / metal halide lamps

1998

D.T. Krizek, R.M. Mirecki, S.J. Britz, W.G. Harris, R.W. Thimijan

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

spectral properties of 3.4 kW microwave-powered sulfur (MPS) lamps were compared with sunlight and with a combination of high-pressure sodium (HPS) and metal halide (MH) lamps. Photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) levels at 1.2 m from the MPS lamps (half and full power) and the HPS/MH lamps were 565, 1650, and 875, umol m-2S-I, respectively, versus 2000, umol m-2 SI for sunlight. The percent of spectral irradiance from bare MPS lamps operated at full power was comparable to that of sunlight in the 400-500 nm (blue) and 600 ...
link: https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ja/recordID/8243/?repository=yes
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Imaging of LED arrays for BLSS

1998

D.E. Ciolkosz, J.C. Sager

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Arrays of light-emitting diodes (LEDS) are being used in life science plant flight experiments and show promise for use in Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS). However, the small volume available for the systems and the short distances from the LED array necessary in these applications create several unique problems. The discrete LEDS are small and the spacing between the lamps results in significant irradiance variation on surfaces near the array. These irradiance variations make it difficult to use traditional hand-held sensors to measure light levels under the array accurately. The usefulness of rear projection video camera imaging is investigated for the analysis of uniformity of irradiance from an LED array. Irradiance measurements were taken at a high mounting height from the array using both a 400-700-nm quantum sensor and a video camera. Additionally, video images were recorded at different mounting heights from the array. The rear projection imaging technique was suitable for analyzing the irradiance from LED arrays. Comparison of the readings from the video image and the sensor suggests that there is a nonlinear relationship between video image reading and sensor value (R(2) = 0.884). These data also show that the average photosynthetically active radiation level (PAR) does not change as mounting height varies, but that the spatial uniformity of the PAR does increase as mounting height increases. These results are consistent with geometrical analyses of the system.
pubmed: 11541672 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00007
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Design parameters of flat-panel LED modules for plant lighting applications

1998

E. Ono, J.L. Cuello, K.A. Jordan

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Semispherical high-intensity light-emitting diodes (LEDS) mounted on a circuit board have been developed and examined for plant growth applications. This type of LED configuration, however, has problems such as relatively poor heat dissipation, difficulty of effecting high light uniformity, and high cost of assembly. Such problems may now be obviated through use of the recently developed flat-panel LED modules. In this study, the photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) levels and PPF distribution of 172 x 27 mm red flat-panel LED modules were determined. Results showed that: 1) the red flat-panel LED modules tested produced a mean PPF level of about 111 micromoles m-2 s-1 at a distance of 10 cm, which would be adequate for most micropropagated species grown photomixotrophically and reasonable for some micropropagated species grown photoautotrophically, both in terms of red wavelength; 2) the mean surface PPF of 419 micromoles m-2 s-1 for a single LED in a flat-panel module was about 47% greater than that for a single semispherical LED at about equal operational currents, owing primarily to the significantly larger reflectance area present in a flat-panel LED than that in a semispherical LED; 3) two flat-panel LED modules tested had about 80% of their illuminated areas having PPF values equal to or greater than half their maximum PPF levels, whereas the third module had a corresponding figure of about 67%; and 4) flat-panel LED modules exhibited very similar PPF distributions, underscoring the advantage of the LED flat-panel design over the manually assembled LED array in the ease of replicating light distributions.
pubmed: 11541671 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00006
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Shoot and root temperature effects on lettuce growth in a floating hydroponic system

1998

Helen C. Thompson,Robert W. Langhans,Arend-Jan Both,Louis D. Albright

publication: Journal of the …

Partial Abstract

“Ostinata” Butterhead lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was used to study lettuce production at varied shoot (air) and root (pond) temperatures. A floating hydroponic system was used to study the influence of pond temperature on lettuce growth for 35 days. Pond water temperature setpoints of 17, 24, and 31 C were used at air temperatures of 17/12, 24/19, and 31/26 “C (day/night). Pond temperature affected plant dry mass, and air temperature significantly affected growth over time. Maximum dry mass was produced at the 24/24 C ...
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aj-Both-2/publication/277824093_Shoot_and_Root_Temperature_E...
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Tow ards efficient conversion of electricity into edible biomass in crop production systems: A transgenic approach

1998

D.J. Tennessen, D.E. Ciolkosz

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

A major problem of controlled environment crop production is the procurement and distribution of adequate light for plant growth. Some electrically efficient light sources lack specific wavelengths required for photomorphogenesis yet provide a light spectrum with a high potential photosynthetic yield. To enable use of these lamps, we describe a concept to genetically modify plants to change their morphogenic responses to light. Photoreceptors in the red and far-red light sensing phytochrome family and the blue light sensing cryptochrome family may be useful to increase or decrease plant sensitivity to regions of the photomorphogenic spectrum. Uses of developmental masterswitches such as COP and DET, and downstream developmental controls, such as the cytokinin biosynthesis enzyme isopentenyl transferase, are also detailed. If photomorphogenic needs can be altered, then lamp selection can be based solely on electrical efficiency of light production and on potential photosynthetic yield from light produced. The combination of lamp electrical efficiency and photosynthetic yield, termed photosynthetic efficacy, was calculated for plant lighting sources. The low-pressure sodium (LPS) and high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps provide the highest photosynthetic efficacies relative to microwave, metal halide, red and blue light-emitting diodes (LED), and fluorescent lamps. Typically plants grow tall and spindly under LPS or red LED irradiation and in some cases under the broader spectrum of HPS. The strategy of genetic modification of plant light requirements may enable use of electrically efficient and photosynthetically useful red-biased light sources without supplementation from less electrically efficient blue or less photosynthetically useful far-red light sources.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00014
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Evaluating the feasibility of biological waste processing for long term space missions

1998

J.L. Garland, M.P. Alazraki, C.F. Atkinson, B.W. Finger

publication: Acta horticulturae

Abstract

Recycling waste products during orbital (e.g., International Space Station) and planetary missions (e.g., lunar base, Mars transit mission, Martian base) will reduce storage and resupply costs. Wastes streams on the space station will include human hygiene water, urine, faeces, and trash. Longer term missions will contain human waste and inedible plant material from plant growth systems used for atmospheric regeneration, food production, and water recycling. The feasibility of biological and physical-chemical waste recycling is being investigated as part of National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Advanced Life Support (ALS) Program. In-vessel composting has lower manpower requirements, lower water and volume requirements, and greater potential for sanitization of human waste compared to alternative bioreactor designs such as continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTR). Residual solids from the process (i.e. compost) could be used a biological air filter, a plant nutrient source, and a carbon sink. Potential in-vessel composting designs for both near- and long-term space missions are presented and discussed with respect to the unique aspects of space-based systems.
doi: 10.17660/actahortic.1998.469.6 pubmed: 11541774 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/469/469_6.htm
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Response of potatoes to nitrogen concentrations differs with nitrogen forms

1998

Weixing Cao,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of Plant Nutrition

Abstract

Two separate experiments were conducted to investigate plant growth and mineral composition of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) at varied solution concentrations of nitrate (NO3 ‐) and ammonium (NH4 +). Each experiment evaluated five nitrogen (N) concentrations of 0.5, 2, 4, 8, and 12 mM, which were maintained with a non‐recirculating nutrient film system in controlled environment. Plants were harvested on day 42 with NO3 ‐ and day 35 with NH4 + after transplanting of tissue culture plantlets, and growth measurements were taken as leaf area, tuber number, and dry weights of different parts. With NO3 ‐, plant growth was greatest and similar at 2, 4, and 8 mM of N whereas with NH4 +, plant growth was best only at 2 and 4 mM of N. At 12 mM of N, plants exhibited interveinal ammonium toxicity with NH4 + nutrition, but healthy growth appearance with NO3 ‐ nutrition. With either N form, total N concentrations in tissues tended to increase with increased N concentrations, and tissue phosphorus (P) concentrations were reduced at 0.5 and 2 mM of N. Tissue concentrations of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) changed only slightly at particular N concentrations, yet changed substantially with different N forms. The data indicate that the optimal ranges of N concentrations in both solution and tissues are wider and higher with NO3 ‐ than with NH4 + nutrition, and thus a careful control of NH4 + concentrations is necessary to minimize possible ammonium toxicity to potato plants.
doi: 10.1080/01904169809365429 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904169809365429
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Nitrogen balance for wheat canopies (Triticum aestivum cv. Veery 10) grown under elevated and ambient CO2 concentrations

1998

D. R. Smart,K. Ritchie,A. J. Bloom,B. B. Bugbee

publication: Plant, Cell & Environment

Abstract

We examined the hypothesis that elevated CO2 concentration would increase NO3– absorption and assimilation using intact wheat canopies (Triticum aestivum cv. Veery 10). Nitrate consumption, the sum of plant absorption and nitrogen loss, was continuously monitored for 23 d following germination under two CO2 concentrations (360 and 1000 μmol mol–1 CO2) and two root zone NO3– concentrations (100 and 1000 mmol m3 NO3–). The plants were grown at high density (1780 m–2) in a 28 m3 controlled environment chamber using solution culture techniques. Wheat responded to 1000 μmol mol–1 CO2 by increasing carbon allocation to root biomass production. Elevated CO2 also increased root zone NO3– consumption, but most of this increase did not result in higher biomass nitrogen. Rather, nitrogen loss accounted for the greatest part of the difference in NO3– consumption between the elevated and ambient [CO2] treatments. The total amount of NO3–-N absorbed by roots or the amount of NO3–-N assimilated per unit area did not significantly differ between elevated and ambient [CO2] treatments. Instead, specific leaf organic nitrogen content declined, and NO3– accumulated in canopies growing under 1000 μmol mol–1 CO2. Our results indicated that 1000 μmol mol–1 CO2 diminished NO3– assimilation. If NO3– assimilation were impaired by high [CO2], then this offers an explanation for why organic nitrogen contents are often observed to decline in elevated [CO2] environments.
doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3040.1998.00315.x link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-3040.1998.00315.x
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Sweetpotato growth using a microporous tube system with lunar simulant medium

1998

H. Aglan,D. Mortley,A. Trotman,P. Loretan,W. Hill

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

Several plant growth systems have been tested for crop production in microgravity and lunar/Mars environments in support of NASA's Advanced Life Support Program and long-term human space missions. These systems have incorporated such design features as the nutrient film technique (NFT), microporous plates, microporous tubes, and expandable boundary chambers and have been developed and used to support sweetpotato production at Tuskegee University. In the present research, the performance of different sweetpotato cultivars in a microporous tube system with lunar simulant medium was studied. The lunar simulant is an inert aggregate with an average particle size of about 3 mm. Buried in this solid medium is a microporous tube. Nutrient solution is circulated through the microporous tube under a slight negative pressure. This pressure is controlled to allow a slight seepage from the tube with some accumulation of water in the solid medium, but no free water. A moisture sensor controls the desired flow rate of nutrient solution by adjusting a check valve to adjust the nutrient solution return to the reservoir in the system. The growth of two sweetpotato breeding lines and one cultivar (TU-155, NC58 and Georgia Jet) were studied and compared in the system. Preliminary observations indicate that storage root yields were highest with NC58 followed by TU155 and then Georgia Jet. In contrast, vine length was the longest for Georgia Jet, followed by NC58 then TU155. However, intemode lengths were similar for the three cultivars. The system with its accessories is very simple to assemble and operated trouble-free for the 100+ days of a sweetpotato plant's growth cycle. Replicated experiments continue in order to test system performance in controlled environments.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44735829
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The use of biofilters to improve indoor air quality. The removal of toluene, TCE, and formaldehyde

1998

A. Darlington, M.A. Dixon, C. Pilger

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

A biofilter composed of a scrubber, a hydroponic planting system, and an aquatic system with green plants as a base maintained air quality within part of a modern office building. The scrubber was composed of five parallel fiberglass modules with external faces of porous lava rock. The face, largely covered with mosses, was wetted by recirculating water. Air was drawn through the scrubber and the immediately adjacent hydroponic region by a dedicated air handling system. The system was challenged for 4 weeks with three common indoor organic pollutants and removed significant amounts of all compounds. A single pass through the scrubber removed 10% of the trichloroethylene and 50% of the toluene. A single pass lowered formaldehyde air concentrations to 13 micrograms m-3 irrespective of influent levels (ranging between 30 and 90 micrograms m-3). The aquatic system accumulated trichloroethylene but neither toluene nor formaldehyde, suggesting the rapid breakdown of these materials. The botanical components removed some pollutants.
pubmed: 11540466 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000001/art00009
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Simulation of photosynthetic rate of C3 and C4 plants under low total pressure

1998

K. Iwabuchi,Y. Ibaraki,K. Kurata,T. Takakura

publication: II Modelling Plant Growth …

Partial Abstract

Total pressure is an important factor for accurate prediction of photosynthesis for plant production in space, because the gas diffusion coefficient is inversely proportional to the total pressure. In this study, for the purpose of growing plants in space, simple leaf photosynthesis models of C 3 and C 4 plants by Thornley, et al.(1990) were applied to spinach and maize to investigate the effects of low total pressure on net photosynthetic rate at constant O 2 and CO 2 partial pressures. For prediction of photosynthetic responses to ...
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1998.456.6 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/456/456_6.htm
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Machine vision monitoring of plant growth and motion

1998

Z. Li, P.P. Ling, G.A. Giacomelli

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The tomato plant was used as a model to study growth and movement due to temperature changes in the environment. A morphological feature, plant top projection canopy area (TPCA), was used to characterize the plant growth and movement. Three temperature regimes (normal temperature, low temperature, and a step change from normal to low temperature) were used for the study. It is found that the plants have significant cyclic canopy movement. In addition, both plant growth, which is represented by canopy expansion, and canopy movement are affected by air temperature. The response of the plant to a step change of air temperature was also documented.
pubmed: 11541685 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00020
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Isolation of functional RNA from periderm tissue of potato tubers and sweetpotato storage roots

1998

D.L. Scott, C.W. Clark, K.L. Deahl, C.S. Prakash

publication: Plant Molecular Biology Reporter

Abstract

A reliable and efficient protocol is given for the isolation of mRNA from the periderm of potato tubers and sweet potato storage roots. The method relies on a urea-based lysis buffer and lithium chloride to concentrate total RNA away from most of the cytoplasmic components and to prevent oxidation of phenolic complexes. To enhance the physical separation of the RNA from other macromolecular components, the RNA fraction was incubated in the presence of the cationic surfactant Catrimox-14. Poly(A)+ mRNA was separated from total RNA and other contaminants by using Promega's MagneSphere technology. The mRNA was suitable for cDNA library construction and RNA fingerprinting.
doi: 10.1023/A:1007438106849 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1007438106849
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Characterizations of high-intensity red and blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a light source for plant growth

1998

E. Ono, J.L. Cuello, K.A. Jordan

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Recently developed high-intensity red and blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which constitute a potentially improved light source for controlled-environment plant growth applications such as in vitro micropropagation and biologically based advanced life support (ALS) for space missions, were characterized in this study. Blue 2 LED and Red 1 LED consistently yielded the highest and lowest voltage drop readings, respectively, for all the electrical current settings tested (5-50 mA), with Blue 1 LED producing voltage drops falling nearly in the middle of the readings for the first two LEDs. At the standard current setting of 20 mA, Blue 2 LED and Blue 1 LED required 2.5 and 1.6 times more electrical power, respectively, than did Red 1 LED. At the standard current of 20 mA, the average photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) for Red 1 LED, Blue 1 LED, and Blue 2 LED were 180, 145, and 36 micromoles m-2 s-1, respectively. Red 1 LED peaked at 460 micromoles m-2 s-1 at 50 mA, Blue 1 LED at 200 micromoles m-2 s-1 at 40 mA, and Blue 2 LED at 40 micromoles m-2 s-1 at about 25 mA. For all current settings, the electrical conversion efficiency of Red 1 was approximately two times greater than that of Blue 1 LED. The electrical conversion efficiency of Blue 1 and of Red 1 LED peaked in between 10 and 20 mA, at about 13 mA for Blue 1 LED and at about 15 mA for Red 1 LED. The normalized PPF distributions for both Red 1 LED and Blue 1 LED were independent of the various magnitudes of electrical current (20, 30, 40, and 50 mA) that were applied to the LEDs.
pubmed: 11871447 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000004/art00003
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Effects of CO2 and O2 concentrations and light intensity on growth of microalgae (Euglena gracilis) in CELSS

1998

Y. Kitaya, S. Kibe, M. Oguchi, H. Tanaka, K. Miyatake, Y. Nakano

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Green microalgae are likely to play an important role in bioregenerative systems for producing food and converting CO2 to O2 in a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS). In the present study, a method for evaluating the effects of environmental variables on the multiplication rate of microalgal cells was developed to determine the optimum culture condition for a microalgal culture system that can function effectively in the CELSS. The microalga, Euglena gracilis, was cultured in water droplets (3 microliters in liquid volume each) in a vessel (25 ml in air volume) in which the CO2 and O2 concentrations were controlled. The number of Euglena cells cultured at CO2 concentrations ranging from 2% to 6%, O2 concentrations ranging from 5% to 20%, and PPF levels ranging from 50 to 100 micromoles m-2 s-1 was monitored by using a video camera and a microscope. The multiplication rate of cells was highest and the cell number increased by 8.3 times during 48 h under a condition of 4% CO2, 21% O2 and 100 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF. The multiplication rate of the cells was highest at 4% CO2, followed by 6% and 2% CO2, and it decreased with decreasing O2 concentration and decreasing PPF.
pubmed: 11541682 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00017
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Life cycle experiments with Arabidopsis grown under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs

1998

G.D. Goins, N.C. Yorio, M.M. Sanwo-Lewandowski, C.S. Brown

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Light-emitting diodes (LEDS) are a potential lighting source for space-based plant growth systems because of their small mass, operational longevity, and spectral quality. However, the vegetative and reproductive growth and development of plants grown under narrow spectrum LEDs must be characterized before acceptance of LEDS as an alternative light source for growing plants. The objectives of this study were 1) to determine the feasibility of using red LEDS for growing Arabidopsis thaliana L. through a full seed-bearing generation, and 2) to determine if supplemental blue radiation is necessary for growth and seed production. Arabidopsis grown under red LEDS alone produced viable seed, but these plants had abnormal leaf morphology and delayed flowering in comparison to control plants grown under broad spectrum white light or red LEDS supplemented with blue light.
pubmed: 11541670 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00005
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Microbial contamination of advanced life support (ALS) systems poses a moderate threat to the long-term stability of space-based bioregenerative systems

1998

A.C. Schuerger

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Microbial contamination of terrestrial hydroponic plant-growing systems provides an effective analogue for studying microbial contamination issues for space-based advanced life support (ALS) systems. If aggressive root or foliar pathogens are introduced into ALS hydroponic systems, severe epidemics are probable. Greater than 80% of the reported outbreaks of root pathogens in terrestrial hydroponic systems describe epidemics caused by fungal species of Fusarium, Phytophthora, and Pythium. However, it is likely that a comprehensive sanitation and quarantine program for space-based ALS modules will prevent contamination by Phytophthora and Pythium spp. because these pathogens are general soilborne. However, Fusarium spp. are typically airborne, can grow saprophytically on diverse substrates, and have been common contaminants of American spacecraft. If comprehensive sanitation and quarantine programs are established for space-based ALS modules, then the threat of pathogen introductions into these systems will be significantly mitigated. Microbial contamination studies in spacecraft over the last 30 years indicate that a high diversity of bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes are commonly carried on board probably via clothing, equipment, air currents during spacecraft handling and loading, food, and the astronauts themselves. Species of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Candida, Cephalosporium, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Mucor, Penicillium, Phoma, and Trichoderma were the most prevalent fungi recovered, and species of Bacillus, Escherichia, Klebsiella, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus were the most prevalent bacteria recovered from spacecraft. Most of these genera contain species that have been reported as plant pathogens. Strict quarantine procedures were not effective in preventing contamination of spacecraft during these missions. Research must be initiated to better understand how microorganisms interact with plants and animals in microgravity environments because microbial contamination of spacecraft and ALS modules cannot be avoided. An integrated pest management (IPM) program likely will be developed for managing plant disease outbreaks in space-based ALS systems.
pubmed: 11876200 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000003/art00008
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Increasing plant productivity in closed environments with inner canopy illumination

1998

M.A. Stasiak, R. Cote, M. Dixon, B. Grodzinski

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Due to the high cost of habitable real estate associated with space travel and colonization, and the ultimate use of plants as the primary method of life support, it is necessary to develop cultivation methods whereby the highest sustainable level of productivity is achieved within the least amount of space. It is well known that in a dense plant canopy, lower leaves become shaded from above and eventually no longer contribute to carbon gain. In fact, they contribute to net respiratory carbon losses. One method of improving biomass production is to introduce light of suitable quantity and quality to the inner canopy, thereby utilizing unused photosynthetic capacity. By coupling microwave-powered lights to 100-mm-diameter glass tubes lined with 3M Optical Lighting Film, light with a spectral quality similar to that of sunlight was delivered to the inner canopy of a developing soybean crop. Results indicated that increases in productivity of 23-87%, as measured by CO2 assimilation, can be achieved in dense plant canopies (LAI approximately 6) when overhead lighting (40O-1200 micromoles m-2 s-1) is supplemented with inner canopy illumination.
pubmed: 11541674 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00009
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Project of converyer-type space greenhouse for cosmonauts’ supply with vitamin greenery

1998

Yu A. Berkovich, N.M. Krivobok, Yu E. Sinyak

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Design and advantages of conveyer-type growth chamber PHYTOCYCLE with a cylindrical crop surface are featured. Based on the results of testing, an experimental prototype of conveyer-type vegetable greenhouse VITACYCLE for space vehicles is being developed at the SSC-IBMP in conjunction with a number of institutions of the Russian space industry to provide space crews with fresh greenery. Rated daily production of the greenhouse is 150 g of eatable biomass with power consumption of 1 kW. The system is to be mounted within the life support module of international space station Alpha (ISSA). Design of the greenhouse is outlined. Brief description, state-of-the-art, and further plans regarding VITACYCLE elaboration and construction are presented.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(98)00220-8 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117798002208
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Performance of salad-type plants using lighting and nutrient delivery concepts intended for space flight

1998

G.D. Goins, N.C. Yorio, H. Vivenzio

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

Because of mass and power constraints in spacecraft, plant growth units designed for spaceflight have limited volume and low photosynthetic photon flux (PPF). Sufficient lighting and nutrient delivery are basic challenges to the success of supporting long-term plant growth in space. At the Kennedy Space Center, plant lighting and nutrient delivery hardware currently under NASA-sponsored development are being evaluated to define some of the fundamental issues associated with producing different fresh salad crops. Lettuce crops performed well under all nutrient delivery systems and lighting sources tested. Spinach and radish yields were lower in the presence of zeoponic media (using an ASTROCULTURE™ root tray) relative to plant grown in conventional NFT systems. Within each nutrient delivery system, yields of salad crops under red LEDs + blue light were similar to those crops grown under conventional white light.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44735747
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Food processing in an enclosed environment: Hydroponically grown wheat to bread

1998

Y. Vodovotz, D. Barta

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

A food system based on raw products obtained from higher plants may be a central feature of a biologically based Advanced Life Support System (ALSS) used on long-duration missions to Moon or Mars. Such a food system is dramatically different from previous systems used on the Shuttle or from what is currently planned for the International Space Station. ALSS requires an integrated approach addressing all aspects of food production, from cultivation through processing to meal preparation. This article characterizes the full process of adding bread to the food system, from production of grain through the baking. Bread, baked using controlled environment-grown wheat, was found to be highly acceptable in sensory analysis tests when compared to bread baked using conventional commercial flour. Chief volatiles released during the rising and baking process included ethanol and acetaldehyde. Flour milled from controlled environment-grown wheat was higher in potassium, sodium, iron, and phosphorus than conventional commercial flour. The impacts of these findings are discussed.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000001/art00011
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A control system for managing a replenishing nutrient solution based on electrical conductivity

1998

D. Davis,N. Dogan,H. Aglan,D. Mortley,P. Loretan

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

An automated nutrient replenishment system has been developed in order to provide a constant electrical conductivity (EC) value for the nutrient solution over the period of plant growth. A single nutrient film technique (NFT) system developed by the Tuskegee University NASA Center was equipped with the EC control system for growth trials with sweetpotatoes. The system is completely controlled and monitored by a PC through the use of LabView instrumentation and data acquisition software. A submersible EC probe driven by an EC controller measures the EC of the nutrient solution reservoir. EC values are passed from the controller to the PC through analog outputs. If the EC is outside a given range, the PC sends a signal to one of two solenoid valves that allow concentrated stock solution or deionized water to enter the reservoir to either raise or lower the EC respectively. For this application the set point is 1200μS cm⁻¹, with a dead band from 1180 to 1220μS cm⁻¹. To aid in nutrient solution replenishments, an ultrasonic sensor was added in order to monitor and maintain constant nutrient solution levels in the reservoir. A similar growth channel (the experimental control) is set up for comparison using a manual method of nutrient solution replenishment. During the initial test run, the automated system held the EC within the designated range throughout the sweetpotato growth cycle.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44735830
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Performance of wheat for air revitalization and food production during the Lunar-Mars life support test project phase III test

1998

Daniel J. Barta,Keith Henderson

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The Lunar-Mars Life Support Systems Test Project's Phase iii Test utilized the Variable Pressure Growth Chamber to contribute to the air revitalization and food requirements of a crew of four for a period of 91 days. USU-Apogee wheat was planted and harvested using a staged approach to provide more uniform levels of air revitalization and a staggered production of grain. The wheat crop provided an average of 1 .1 person-equivalents per day of carbon dioxide removal for air revitalization over the 91 -day human test. Over 34 kg of grain was harvested. it was found that staged cropping required more intensive management of the nutrient solution than single batch cropping. it was also found that salts which were biologically recovered from the plant biomass were as effective as conventional reagent-grade salts for use in the hydroponic nutrient solution.
doi: 10.4271/981704 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/981704/
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Consumer acceptance of vegetarian sweetpotato products intended for space mission

1998

C.D. Wilson, R.D. Pace, E. Bromfield, G. Jones, J.Y. Lu

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Sweet potato is one of the crops selected for NASA’s Advanced Life Support Program for potential long-duration lunar/Mars missions. This article presents recipes of products made from sweet potato and determines the consumer acceptability of products containing from 6% to 20% sweet potato on a dry weight basis. These products were developed for use in nutritious and palatable meals for future space explorers. Sensory evaluation (appearance/color, aroma, texture, flavor/taste, and overall acceptability) studies were conducted to determine the consumer acceptability of vegetarian products made with sweet potato using panelists at NASA/Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX. None of these products, including the controls, contained any ingredient of animal origin with the exception of the control sweet potato pie. A 9-point hedonic scale (9 being like extremely and 1 being dislike extremely) was used to evaluate 10 products and compare them to similar commercially available products used as controls. The products tested were pancakes, waffles, tortillas, bread, pie, pound cake, pasta, vegetable patties, doughnuts, and pretzels. All of the products were either liked moderately or liked slightly with the exception of the sweet potato vegetable patties, which were neither liked nor disliked. Mean comparisons of sensory scores of sweet potato recipes and their controls were accomplished by using the Student t-test. Because of their nutritional adequacy and consumer acceptability, these products are being recommended to NASA’s Advanced Life Support Program for inclusion in a vegetarian menu plan designed for lunar/Mars space missions.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000003/art00009
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Development of the optical wave guide solar lighting system for space-based plant growing

1998

T. Nakamura, J.A. Case, M. Mankamyer

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

This article summarizes the study on the Optical Waveguide (OW) Solar Lighting System for space-based plant growing. In the OW solar lighting system, solar radiation is collected by the concentrator, which transfers the concentrated solar radiation to the OW transmission line consisting of low-loss optical fibers. The OW line transmits the solar radiation to the plant growing units where the solar radiation from the optical fibers is defocused and directed to the plants for optimum intensity for plant growing. In this study, the laboratory OW solar lighting system was constructed and tested for plant growth. The OW system consists of: 1) tracking reflective concentrators; 2) the optical waveguide transmission line; and 3) the plant lighting device. Results of the performance tests and the plant growth tests of the OW solar lighting system showed that the OW system is a viable plant lighting system for growing plant in space.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00013
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Coordinated management of daily PAR integral and carbon dioxide for hydroponic lettuce production

1998

A.J. Both,L.D. Albright,R.W. Langhans

publication: II Modelling Plant Growth …

Partial Abstract

The interaction between daily integrated photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and elevated aerial CO 2 concentration was studied during plant growth experiments with leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L., cv. Vivaldi) grown in a nutrient film technique system in a greenhouse. Accurate control of all environment parameters (except relative humidity) and four identical greenhouse sections constituted the experimental setup. Supplemental lighting (high pressure sodium lamps) was used to provide additional PAR to the lettuce on ...
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1998.456.3 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/456/456_3.htm
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A recirculating hydroponic system for studying peanut (Arachis hypogaea L

1998

C.L. Mackowiak,R.M. Wheeler,G.W. Stutte,N.C. Yorio,L.M. Ruffe

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) plants were grown hydroponically, using continuously recirculating nutrient solution. Two culture tray designs were tested; one tray design used only nutrient solution, while the other used a sphagnum-filled pod development compartment just beneath the cover and above the nutrient solution. Both trays were fitted with slotted covers to allow developing gynophores to reach the root zone. Peanut seed yields averaged 350 gm-2 dry mass, regardless of tray design, suggesting that substrate is not required for hydroponic peanut production.
pubmed: 11541799 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11541799
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Elements of spacecraft cabin air quality control design

1998

J.L. Perry

publication: unknown

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Improving tomato harvest index by controlling crop height and side shoot production

1998

T.J. Gianfagna, L. Logendra, E.F. Durner, H.W. Janes

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Given the constraints on physical space, energy supply, and labor availability, crop production efficiency must be maximized if a sustainable supply of food is to be produced on lunar and planetary space stations. In the modules designed for plant growth, crop production efficiency or the harvest index (HI, fruit weight/total plant weight) must be calculated on a cubic volume basis because the physical space allocated for plant growth will be limited in three dimensions. In order to increase HI, tomato plant architecture could be modified to reduce the extent of internode elongation and side shoot production. To test this hypothesis, plants were treated with the growth retardant paclobutrazol (PAC) and topped after the second flower cluster. PAC reduced plant height at harvest by 29% and total vegetative shoot growth by 28%. Fruit yield was reduced by 12%, although the greater reduction in vegetative growth by PAC resulted in an increased HI from 0.53 to 0.58 when calculated on a gram fresh weight basis. Yield/m3 of growing space utilized increased 23% with PAC treatment. The leaf axils of tomato plants grown in a single truss system were treated with the chemical pruning agent Off-Shoot-O (OSO), a mixture of short chain fatty acid methyl esters. OSO significantly reduced the number of side shoots/plant, increased fruit yield by 12%, and increased the HI from 0.71 to 0.77 compared to hand-pruned plants. Untreated plants required three manual pruning operations during the production period; plants treated with OSO were pruned only once at the time of application for a significant savings in labor. The results of both experiments clearly demonstrate that HI of tomato can be increased by reducing internode elongation and preventing side shoot development.
pubmed: 11541684 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000002/art00019
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Analysis of genetic diversity in Chinese sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] using DNA amplification fingerprinting

1998

J. Wang, G. He, C.S. Prakash, S. Lu

publication: Plant genetic resources newsletter (Rome, Italy : 1979)

Abstract

The genetic diversity and evolutionary relationships in a representative sample of Chinese sweetpotato collection were assessed using the DNA amplification fingerprinting approach. DNA fingerprint profiles were developed for all 42 accessions tested. There were 19-26 bands for each accession and an average of 20.7 such bands were polymorphic. Chinese sweetpotato germplasm tested exhibited a high degree of genetic diversity. Phenetic analysis revealed five major clusters with the following components: (1) landraces from Guangdong Province, (2) landraces from Fujian province, (3) Chinese cultivars, (4) those closely related to Japanese sweetpotato cultivars, and (5) those closely related to the US sweetpotato cv. Nancy Hall. The genetic association observed between accessions was largely consistent with the known pedigree records. The DNA amplification fingerprinting may provide reliable insights into the domestication history of the sweetpotato crop and may be useful in germplasm enhancement.
pubmed: 12296360 link: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/104169/Plant_Genetic_Resources_Newsletter_No_113...
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Adaptation to high CO2 concentration in an optimal environment: Radiation capture, canopy quantum yield and carbon use efficiency

1998

O. Monje,B. Bugbee

publication: Plant, cell & environment

Abstract

The effect of elevated [CO2] on wheat (Triticum aestivum L. Veery 10) productivity was examined by analysing radiation capture, canopy quantum yield, canopy carbon use efficiency, harvest index and daily C gain. Canopies were grown at either 330 or 1200 micromoles mol-1 [CO2] in controlled environments, where root and shoot C fluxes were monitored continuously from emergence to harvest. A rapidly circulating hydroponic solution supplied nutrients, water and root zone oxygen. At harvest, dry mass predicted from gas exchange data was 102.8 +/- 4.7% of the observed dry mass in six trials. Neither radiation capture efficiency nor carbon use efficiency were affected by elevated [CO2], but yield increased by 13% due to a sustained increase in canopy quantum yield. CO2 enrichment increased root mass, tiller number and seed mass. Harvest index and chlorophyll concentration were unchanged, but CO2 enrichment increased average life cycle net photosynthesis (13%, P < 0.05) and root respiration (24%, P < 0.05). These data indicate that plant communities adapt to CO2 enrichment through changes in C allocation. Elevated [CO2] increases sink strength in optimal environments, resulting in sustained increases in photosynthetic capacity, canopy quantum yield and daily C gain throughout the life cycle.
doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3040.1998.00284.x pubmed: 11543216 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-3040.1998.00284.x
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Azolla-Anabaena symbionts and microbial mat as nitrogen-fixing biocatalysts for bioregenerative space life support

1998

J.L. Cuello, S. Rodriguez-Eaton, E.C. Stryjewski, J.C. Sager

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

This study was conducted to characterize the responses of selected nitrogen-fixing biocatalysts to various environmental parameters that are likely to be encountered in a scaled-up nitrogen-fixing bioregenerative unit for use in a biologically based life support system (BLSS). The results showed that while both Azolla filiculoides and Azolla nilotica thrived on standard nitrogen-free liquid media, only Azolla filiculoides maintained its growth rate in the presence of 50% by volume of aerobic-bioreactor potato effluent (ABPE) in its liquid medium. The growth rate and Anabaena cavity population of Azolla filiculoides also remained undiminished in the presence of as much as 10 mM of NO3 − in its liquid medium. The tolerance of Azolla filiculoides for NO3 −, however, lay somewhere between 10 and 20 mM of NO3 −. Azolla filiculoides failed to grow at 5 mM or greater concentrations of NH4 +. The growth rate of the Oscillatoria-dominated microbial mat was significantly elevated by increased silage loading density (16 g/L) as well as by adding 5 mM of NO3 − into its liquid medium. Neither the growth rate of Azolla filiculoides nor that of the microbial mat was affected by three levels of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) (520, 265, and 125 μmol m−2 s−1) under high-pressure sodium or cool fluorescent lamps.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1998/00000005/00000004/art00001
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Novel laboratory approaches to multi-purpose aquatic bioregenerative closed-loop food production systems

1998

V. Blüm,M. Andriske,K. Kreuzberg,U. Paassen,M.P. Schreibman,D. Voeste

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

Based on the construction principle of the Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) two novel combined animal-plant production systems were developed in laboratory scale the first of which is dedicated to mid-term operation in closed state up to two years. In principle both consist of the "classic" C.E.B.A.S. subcomponents: animal tank (Zoological Component), plant cultivators (Botanical Component), ammonia converting bacteria filter (Microbial Component) and data acquisition/control unit (Electronical Component). The innovative approach in the first system is the utilization of minimally three aquatic plant cultivators for different species. In this one the animal tank has a volume of about 160 liters and is constructed as an "endless-way system" surrounding a central unit containing the heat exchanger and the bacteria filter with volumes of about 1.5 liters each. A suspension plant cultivator (1 liter) for the edible duckweed Wolffia arrhiza is externally connected. The second plant cultivator is a meandric microalgal bioreactor for filamentous green algae. The third plant growth facility is a chamber with about 2.5 liters volume for cultivation of the "traditional" C.E.B.A.S. plant species, the rootless buoyant Ceratophyllum demersum. Both latter units are illuminated with 9 W fluorescent lamps. In the current experiment the animal tank contains the live-bearing teleost fish Xiphophorus helleri and the small pulmonate water snail Biomphalaria glabrata because their physiological adaptation to the closed system conditions is well known from many previous C.E.B.A.S. experiments. The water temperature is maintained at 25 degrees C and the oxygen level is regulated between 4 and 7 mg/l by switching on and off the plant cultivator illuminations according to a suitable pattern thus utilizing solely the oxygen produced by photosynthesis. The animals and the microorganisms of filter and biofilm provide the plants with a sufficient amount of carbon dioxide. Oxygen concentration, pH value, temperature and redox potential are on-line recorded. Ion concentrations and numbers of living germs in the system water are determined twice monthly in the laboratory from samples taken from a special "sample removal module"; the sample volume is automatically replaced from an reservoir container. A rotatory pump produces a water flow of about 38 l/min. For a similar smaller test system with approx. 10 l volume developed from the C.E.B.A.S.-MINI-MODULE a novel indirect solar energy supply is tested which has a buffer capacity to maintain the system for 7 days in darkness under central European climate conditions also in winter. It contains only a single plant cultivator which is operated with Wollfia arrhiza. This lemnacean plant is able to produce large amounts of plant biomass in a short time by vegetative reproduction via daughter fronds. This easy-to-handle apparatus is dedicated to be operative more than 4 month. The experimental animals and microorganisms are the same as in the large system. The paper provides detailed information on the system construction principles and the biological, physical and chemical data of the initial phase of the test runs of both systems with the main focus on the large one.
doi: 10.1016/s0094-5765(98)00103-9 pubmed: 11541608 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576598001039
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A data base of nutrient used, water use, CO2 exchange, ethylene production by soybeans in a controlled environment

1998

R.M. Wheeler, C.L. Mackowiak, B.V. Peterson, J.C. Sager, W.M. Knott, W.L. Berry, M.R. Sharifi

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

A data set is given describing daily nutrient and water uptake, carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange, ethylene production, and carbon and nutrient partitioning from a 20 sq m stand of soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. McCall] for use in bioregenerative life support systems. Stand CO2 exchange rates were determined from nocturnal increases in CO2 (respiration) and morning drawdowns (net photosynthesis) to a set point of 1000 micromol/ mol each day (i.e., a closed system approach). Atmospheric samples were analyzed throughout growth for ethylene using gas chromatography with photoionization detection (GC/PH)). Water use was monitored by condensate production from the humidity control system, as well as water uptake from the nutrient solution reservoirs each day. Nutrient uptake data were determined from daily additions of stock solution and acid to maintain an EC of 0.12 S/m and pH of 5.8. Dry mass yields of seeds, pods (without seeds), leaves, stems, and roots are provided, as well as elemental and proximate nutritional compositions of the tissues. A methods section is included to qualify any assumptions that might be required for the use of the data in plant growth models, along with a daily event calendar documenting set point adjustments and the occasional equipment or sensor failure.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19980137405
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Ground-based studies with super-dwarf wheat in preparation for space flight

1998

Frank B. Salisbury,Linda S. Gillespie,William F. Campbell,Pamela Hole

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

Several experiments were carried out to test responses of a Super-Dwarf cultivar of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to various environmental parameters that were anticipated to be present in our attempts to grow the wheat in a small growth chamber on the Russian Space Station, Mir, or that proved to be present in a 1995 trial space experiment. Under low photosynthetic photon flux (40-400 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF), development (e.g. anthesis) was retarded, but heads (often sterile) always formed, even if light was so low that plants died before the heads could mature. Longer photoperiods promoted flowering, but night interruptions combined with short days did not provoke a long-day response as occurs with true long-day plants. The long-day effect could prove to be a summation of photosynthetic products. Heat stress (40 degrees C for 1-24 h) did not influence flowering but killed plants that were 13-16-day-old (no effect on younger plants). Concentrations of iodine or silver-fluoride disinfectants present in the water used for plants on Mir (1.0-4.0 mg L-1) did not affect plant growth although higher concentrations (8.0-1.6 mg L-1) were inhibitory. GA3 or indoleacetic acid applied every other day at concentrations from 1.0 x 10(-6) mg L-1 to 3.162 x 10(-4) mg L-1 did not change the height of Super-Dwarf wheat, suggesting that this cultivar is not a gibberellin mutant.
doi: 10.1016/s0176-1617(98)80145-4 pubmed: 11540590 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161798801454
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Continuous daily light period and temperature influence peanut yield in nutrient film technique

1999

T. Rowell,D. G. Mortley,P. A. Loretan,C. K. Bonsi,W. A. Hill

publication: Crop Science

Abstract

The peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is under investigation for use in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Advanced Life Support (ALS) program as a food source for extended space missions. The objective of this study was an evaluation of the effect of a continuous light period combined with constant or diurnally cyded temperatures on pod and seed yield, plant biomass, harvest index, and gas exchange in ‘Georgia Red’ peanut grown hydroponically under the nutrient film technique. Experiments were conducted in controlled-environment growth chambers. Treatments were light/ dark periods of 12/12 h or 24/0 h in combination with a constant 28 or 28/22°C. Relative humidity was 70 ± 5% and a photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) at canopy level of 250 or 500 μmol m−2 s−1 for 2410 h and 12/12-h light periods, respectively. Plants exposed to 24/0 h light produced more foliage biomass, lower pod and mature seed yields, and lower harvest indices. Temperature had no significant effect on foliage biomass yield. However, plants exposed to diurnal 28/22°C produced higher pod and immature seed yield and a higher harvest index. The mean number of flowers reaching anthesis was higher among plants grown at a 12/12-h light period, regardless of temperature. Leaf net photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance were higher among plants grown at 12/12-h light period, regardless of temperature. The results suggest that, while light period influenced, foliage, pod, and seed yield, temperature influenced foliage dry mass, immature seed yield, and harvest index.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci1999.0011183X003900040026x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci1999.0011183X003900040026x
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Nutrient, acid, and water budgets of hydroponically grown crops

1999

R.M. Wheeler,J.C. Sager,W.L. Berry,C.L. Mackowiak,G.W. Stutte,N.C. Yorio,L.M. Ruffe

publication: … Symposium on Growing …

Partial Abstract

Tests were conducted with wheat, soybean, potato, and lettuce to evaluate their nutrient, acid, and water requirements when grown in a recirculating hydroponic system. Crops were grown in an atmospherically closed chamber (20 m 2 area, 113 m 3 volume) using recirculating nutrient film technique (NFT). Nutrient solutions used nitrate as the sole nitrogen source and were maintained at an electrical conductivity (EC) set-point of 0.12 S m-1. Solution pH was maintained near 5.8 with automatic additions of dilute (0.4 mol L-1) nitric ...
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1999.481.78 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/481/481_78.htm
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Growing crops for space explorers on the Moon, Mars, or in space

1999

Frank B. Salisbury

publication: Advances in space biology and medicine

Abstract

An option in the long-duration exploration of space, whether on the Moon or Mars, or in a spacecraft on its way to Mars or the asteroids, is to utilize a bioregenerative life-support system, in addition to the physicochemical systems that will always be necessary. Green plants can use the energy of light to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and add oxygen to it while at the same time synthesizing food for the space travelers. The water that crop plants transpire can be condensed in pure form, contributing to the water-purification system. An added bonus is that green plants provide a familiar environment for humans far from their home planet. The downside is that such a bioregenerative life-support system—called a controlled environment life-support system (CELSS) in this chapter—must be highly complex and relatively massive to maintain a proper composition of the atmosphere while also providing food. Thus, launch costs will be high.
doi: 10.1016/S1569-2574(08)60009-X link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S156925740860009X
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Is nitrate necessary in biological life support?

1999

D.J. Muhlestein, T.M. Hooten, R. Koenig, P. Grossl, B. Bugbee

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Urea is 85% of the recycled nitrogen in a life support system. Urea is quickly converted to NH4+ but nitrification to NO3− is difficult. Supplying NH4+ directly to plants eliminates the need for a nitrifying bioreactor. Most plant physiology textbooks indicate that NH4+ is toxic to plants, but we now know that this may not be true if pH is rigorously controlled. However, the long-term effects of high NH4+/ NO3− uptake ratios are poorly understood. In four studies, two cultivars of wheat were grown to maturity with NH4+/ NO3− ratios from 0 to 0.85 in recirculating hydroponic solution. In the third and fourth studies, NH4+ was supplied as (NH4)2SO4, NH4CI, or both. Contrary to conventional wisdom, there was no beneficial effect of supplying 25% of the N as NH4+ compared to a nitrate control. The high NH4+ treatment (85% NH4+) reduced seed yield by 20% in the first two studies, but yield was not reduced in the third and fourth studies. Increasing calcium and potassium supply in the nutrient solution appears to be critical to ameliorating the detrimental effects of NH4+. Seed protein concentration was increased from 17 to 22% at the highest NH4+ level. These studies indicate that it may be possible to eliminate the need to recycle N as NO3− in regenerative life support systems.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2026 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2026/
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Bioregenerative life support system testing at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center

1999

R.M. Wheeler

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Effects of CO2 on stomatal conductance: Do stomata open at very high CO2 concentrations? Ann

1999

R.M. Wheeler, C.L. Mackowiak, N.C. Yorio, J.C. Sager

publication: Annals of botany

Abstract

Potato and wheat plants were grown for 50 d at 400, 1000 and 10000 μmol mol^-1carbon dioxide (CO2), and sweetpotato and soybean were grown at 1000 μmol mol^-1 CO2 in controlled environment chambers to study stomatal conductance and plant water use. Lighting was provided with fluorescent lamps as a 12 h photoperiod with 300 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹PAR. Mid-day stomatal conductances for potato were greatest at 400 and 10000 μmol mol^-1 and least at 1000 μmol mol^-1CO2. Mid-day conductances for wheat were greatest at 400 μmol mol^-1and least at 1000 and 10000 μmol mol^-1 CO2. Mid-dark period conductances for potato were significantly greater at 10000 μmol mol^-1 than at 400 or 1000 μmol mol^-1, whereas dark conductance for wheat was similar in all CO2treatments. Temporarily changing the CO2concentration from the native 1000 μmol mol^-1to 400 μmol mol^-1 increased mid-day conductance for all species, while temporarily changing from 1000 to 10000 μmol mol^-1 also increased conductance for potato and sweetpotato. Temporarily changing the dark period CO2from 1000 to 10000 μmol mol^-1increased conductance for potato, soybean and sweetpotato. In all cases, the stomatal responses were reversible, i.e. conductances returned to original rates following temporary changes in CO2concentration. Canopy water use for potato was greatest at 10000, intermediate at 400, and least at 1000 μmol mol^-1 CO2, whereas canopy water use for wheat was greatest at 400 and similar at 1000 and 10000 μmol mol^-1 CO2. Elevated CO2treatments (i.e. 1000 and 10000 μmol mol^-1) resulted in increased plant biomass for both wheat and potato relative to 400 μmol mol^-1, and no injurious effects were apparent from the 10000 μmol mol^-1 treatment. Results indicate that super-elevated CO2(i.e. 10000 μmol mol^-1) can increase>stomatal conductance in some species, particularly during the dark period, resulting in increased water use and decreased water use efficiency.
doi: 10.1006/anbo.1998.0813 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305736498908137
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Theoretical and practical considerations of staggered crop production in a BLSS

1999

G.W. Stutte, C.L. Mackowiak, N.C. Yorio, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

A functional Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS) will generate oxygen, remove excess carbon dioxide, purify water, and produce food on a continuous basis for long periods of operation. In order to minimize fluctuations in gas exchange, water purification, and yield that are inherent in batch systems, staggered planting and harvesting of the crop is desirable. A 418-day test of staggered production of potato cv. Norland (26-day harvest cycles) using nutrients recovered from inedible biomass was conducted at Kennedy Space Center. The results indicate that staggered production can be sustained without detrimental effects on BLSS life support functions. System yields of H2O, O2 and food were higher in staggered than batch plantings. Plants growing in staggered production or batch production on "aged" solution initiated tubers earlier, and were shorter than plants grown on "fresh" solution. This morphological response required an increase in planting density to maintain full canopy coverage. Plants grown in staggered production used available light more efficiently than the batch planting due to increased side lighting.
pubmed: 11543268 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1999/00000006/00000004/art00005
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Water relations and leaf gas exchange of table-beet in response to replacement of nutrient K with Na

1999

Guntur V Subbarao,Raymond M Wheeler,Gary W Stutte

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Developing crop-based approaches for sodium recycling may be required for integrating urine and gray water into food production systems for advanced life support. Sodium (Na) is generally considered non-essential for plants, whereas potassium (K) is a macro-nutrient involved in a range of metabolic functions, including maintenance of cell turgor and water relations. This study compared if K can be largely replaced with Na in the nutrient solutions without affecting productivity. Table-beet (Beta vulgaris) variety Ruby Queen was grown at K/Na (mM) ratios of 5.0/0, and 0.1/4.90 (represents 0% and 98% substitution of K with Na in nutrient solutions) in a re-circulating hydroponic system. Plants were grown at elevated CO2 (i.e. at 1200 μmol mol−1) in growth chamber for 42 days. Leaf photosynthetic rates were measured at 32 days after planting. Leaf relative water content (RWC) and osmotic potential were measured at harvest. Replacing nutrient K with Na had no significant effect on leaf chlorophyll levels or photosynthetic rate. Leaf relative water content was significantly higher at K/Na 0.1/4.90 than 5.0/0 treatment. Osmotic potential of the leaf sap was not significantly affected by Na substitution for K. Sodium concentrations reached to about 300 mM in leaf sap. Results indicated that table-beet has a high degree of tolerance to substitution of tissue K with Na. We conclude that for table beet, K could be managed as a micro-nutrient in the presence of adequate sodium which could take over some of the osmotic functions of K.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2020 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2020/
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The biomass production system for the bioregenerative planetary life support systems test complex: Preliminary designs and considerations

1999

Daniel J. Barta,Juan M. Castillo,Russ E. Fortson

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The Biomass Production System (BPS) is one of seven life support systems which make up the advanced life support system planned for the Bioregenerative Planetary Life Support Systems Test Complex (BIO-Plex), a large-scale human-rated test facility under development at NASA Johnson Space Center. The chief goal of the BPS is to support food crop production from propagation and seeding to the harvest and storage of raw agricultural products. The BPS will utilize two Biomass Production Chambers (BPC1 & BPC2) that will be internally outfitted with systems to grow plants, optimized for yield per unit of area and volume. In the preliminary design described here, BPC1 will have 82 m2 of area for crop growth, yielding a volume to area ratio of 2.3 m3 m−2. This paper provides a description of preliminary designs, with focus on BPC1.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2188 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2188/
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Computer modeling of hydroponics nutrient pH control using ammonium

1999

M. Pitts, G.W. Stutte

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

A computer simulation of a hydroponics-based plant growth chamber using ammonium to control pH was constructed to determine the feasibility of such a system. In nitrate-based recirculating hydroponics systems, the pH will increase as plants release hydroxide ions into the nutrient solution to maintain plant charge balance. Ammonium is an attractive alternative to traditional pH controls in an ALSS, but requires careful monitoring and control to avoid overdosing the plants with ammonium. The primary advantage of using NH4+ for pH control is that it exploits the existing plant nutrient uptake charge balance mechanisms to maintain solution pH. The simulation models growth, nitrogen uptake, and pH of a l-m2 stand of wheat. Simulation results indicated that ammonium-based control of nutrient solution pH is feasible using a proportional integral controller. Use of a 1 mmol/L buffer (Ka = 1.6 x 10(-6)) in the nutrient solution is required.
pubmed: 11542244 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1999/00000006/00000002/art00002
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Multivariable empirical modeling of ALS systems using polynomials

1999

D.A. Vaccari, J. Levri

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Multivariable polynomial regression (MPR) was used to model plant motion time-series and nutrient recovery data for Advanced Life Support (ALS). MPR has capabilities similar to neural network models in terms of ability to fit multiple-input single-output nonlinear data. It has advantages over neural networks including: reduced overfitting, produces models that are more tractable for optimization, sensitivity analysis, and prediction of confidence intervals. MPR was used to produce nonlinear polynomial time-series models predicting plant projected canopy area versus time and temperature. Temperature was found to not have a statistically significant effect. Models were developed to relate rate and extent of nutrient recovery to treatment parameters, including temperature and use of heat pretreatment or nutrient supplementation. These applications demonstrate MPR's capability to fill "gaps" in an integrated model of ALS. Fundamental models should be used whenever available. However, some components may require empirical modeling. Furthermore, even fundamental models often have empirical constituents. MPR models are proposed to satisfy these needs.
pubmed: 11543265 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1999/00000006/00000004/art00002
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Improving light interception by slecting morphological leaf phenotypes: A case study using a semi-leafless pea mutant

1999

R. Cote, B. Grodzinski

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Among the species which are considered suitable candidates for life support programs, legumes would be highly valued because of their high protein content and their capacity to fix N2 under symbiotic conditions. The legume, Pisum sativum, has a short life-cycle (48 days), is easily cultivated, does not required any special seed treatment to germinate, and all parts of its shoot are edible, all of which make peas a possible candidate crop for life support programs. In conventional pea cultivars, the leaf has a compound structure with over 95% of the laminar surface provided by leaflets and stipules. In the semi-leafless pea mutants, where the “afila” mutation is present, all leaflets are replaced by tendril complexes. Although it was originally assumed that such a dramatic reduction in the laminar surface would significantly affect the gas exchange and plant growth potential of the plant, current data clearly show that the morphological mutation “afila” does not markedly affect the net carbon exchange rate or reproductive capacity of the pea plant. The efficiency of semi-leafless phenotype appears to be due to the high level of light penetration within the canopy and the large surface area of tendrils. On a surface area or chlorophyll basis, the tendrils have similar photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration rates to their laminar counterparts (stipules and leaflets). On a whole plant basis, the reduction in photosynthetic laminar surface produces a more open canopy with less mutual shading and more opportunity for air movement at high planting densities. Furthermore, lodging plants within the growth chambers were not observed with semi-leafless phenotypes. Taken together, the data underscore the value of genetically manipulating plant morphology to improve light penetration within a dense canopy.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2102 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2102/
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Microgravity effects on water flow and distribution in unsaturated porous media: Analyses of flight experiments

1999

Scott B. Jones,Dani Or

publication: Water resources research

Abstract

Plants grown in porous media are part of a bioregenerative life support system designed for long-duration space missions. Reduced gravity conditions of orbiting spacecraft (microgravity) alter several aspects of liquid flow and distribution within partially saturated porous media. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the suitability of conventional capillary flow theory in simulating water distribution in porous media measured in a microgravity environment. Data from experiments aboard the Russian space station Mir and a U.S. space shuttle were simulated by elimination of the gravitational term from the Richards equation. Qualitative comparisons with media hydraulic parameters measured on Earth suggest narrower pore size distributions and inactive or nonparticipating large pores in microgravity. Evidence of accentuated hysteresis, altered soil-water characteristic, and reduced unsaturated hydraulic conductivity from microgravity simulations may be attributable to a number of proposed secondary mechanisms. These are likely spawned by enhanced and modified paths of interfacial flows and an altered force ratio of capillary to body forces in microgravity.
doi: 10.1029/1998WR900091 link: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/1998WR900091
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Sealed environment chamber for canopy light interception and trace hydrocarbon analyses

1999

M.A. Dixon,B. Grodzinski,R. Côté,M. Stasiak

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Two sealed chambers were constructed, each measuring approximately 4.5 m x 3 m x 2.5 m (LxWxH). Heat exchangers and air handling components were integrated within the sealed environment. Construction materials were chosen to minimize off-gassing and oxidation. Acceptable materials included stainless steel, Teflon (TM), glass and Heresite (TM) or baked enamel coated metal parts. The glass-topped chambers have externally mounted microwave powered light sources providing minimum PAR at canopy level of 1000 micrometers m-2 s-1. Major gases (CO2, O2) were monitored. Other environmental variables relevant to plant production (humidity, temperature, nutrient solution) were monitored and controlled continuously. Typical environment control capability and system specifications are presented. The facility is described as a venue ideally suited to address specific research objectives in plant canopy light interception, such as the roles of novel microwave powered overhead and inner-canopy light sources for dense plant canopies. In addition, control of recycled hydroponic nutrient solutions and analysis of trace atmospheric hydrocarbons in the context of sealed environment life support can be concurrently monitored.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00314-2 pubmed: 11542534 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117799003142
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Glycoalkaloids in potato tubers grown under controlled environments

1999

Anadi Nitithamyong,Joachim H. Vonelbe,Raymond M. Wheeler,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: American potato journal

Abstract

Tuber content of alpha-solanine, alpha-chaconine, and total glycoalkaloids (TGA) was determined for the potato cultivars, Norland, Russet Burbank, and Denali grown under different environmental conditions in growth chambers. The lowest TGA concentrations (0.30 to 0.35 mg g-1 dry tissue) were found in the cv. Norland with 400 micromoles m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), 12 h day length, 16 C temperature, and 350 micromoles mol-1 carbon dioxide. The ratio of alpha-chaconine to alpha-solanine was close to 60:40 under all growing conditions, except that it was 50:50 under the low temperature of 12 C. Cultivars responded similarly to environmental conditions although TGA was about 20% greater in cv. Russet Burbank and about 30% greater in Denali compared to Norland. The largest changes in TGA occurred with changes in temperature. In comparison to 16 C, TGA were 40% greater at 12 C, 80% greater at 20 C, and 125% greater at 24 C (0.70 mg g-1 dry weight). The TGA concentration increased from 10 to 25% with an increase in light from 400 to 800 micromoles m-2 s-1 PPF for all three cultivars. TGA increased 20% with extension of the day length from 12 to 24 hr and also increased 20% when carbon dioxide was increased from 350 to 1000 micromoles mol-1. TGA concentrations were not influenced by changes in relative humidity from 50 to 80%. TGA concentrations decreased only slightly in harvests made from 9 to 21 weeks after planting. Variations in TGA among the different growing conditions and cultivars were below 20 mg/100 g fresh weight (approximately 1.0 mg g-1 dry weight) recognized as the upper concentration for food safety. However the results suggest that TGA should be considered when potatoes are grown at temperatures above 20 C.
doi: 10.1007/BF02910006 pubmed: 11543354 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02910006
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Modification of SUBSTOR for hydroponic, controlled environment white potato production

1999

D.H. Fleisher, J. Cavazzoni, G.A. Giacomelli, K.C. Ting

publication: ASAE/CSAE-SCGR Annual International Meeting

Abstract

SUBSTOR, one of several detailed open-field crop growth and development models included with DSSAT software, was modified for controlled environment hydroponic production of potatoes cv. Norland. Experiments, designed to provide necessary growth and phenological data required for model calibrations, were conducted within a walk-in growth chamber retrofitted with hydroponic ebb and flood irrigation. SUBSTOR modifications included the determination of genetic coefficient values for cv. Norland, adjustment of input files to accept controlled environment cultural conditions, and source code changes to account for the absorption of light reflected from the substrate below the crop canopy, and to adjust relevant model plant parameters such as radiation use efficiency.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19990709552
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A simplified closed artificial ecosystem-- Recycling of organic matter into wheat plants

1999

L. Lamotte,B. Saugier,D.T. Smernoff,M. André

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A simplified closed system consisting of a plant growth chamber coupled to a decomposition chamber was used to study carbon exchange dynamics. The CO2 produced via the decomposition of wheat straw was used for photosynthetic carbon uptake by wheat plants. The atmosphere of the two chambers was connected through a circuit of known flow rate. Thus, monitoring the CO2 concentrations in both compartments allowed measurement of the carbon exchange between the chambers, and estimation of the rate of respiration processes in the decomposition chamber and photosynthetic rate in the producer chamber. The objective for CELSS research was to simulate a system where a compartment producing food via photosynthesis, would be supplied by CO2 produced from respiration processes. The decomposition of biomass by the decomposer simulated both the metabolism of a crew and the result of a recycling system for inedible biomass. Concerning terrestrial ecosystems, the objective was to study organic matter decomposition in soil and other processes related to permanent grasslands.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00483-4 pubmed: 11542538 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117799004834
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Coupling machine vision and crop models for closed-loop plant production in Advanced Life Support Systems

1999

J. Cavazzoni, P.P. Ling

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

We present a conceptual framework for coupling nondestructive sensing to crop models for closed-loop plant production for NASA's program in advanced life support. Coupling is achieved by comparing nondestructive observations with model predictions of plant growth and development. The information thus provided may be useful in diagnosing problems with the plant growth system, or as a feedback to the model for evaluation of plant scheduling and potential yield. We illustrate this concept using canopy height and machine vision measured top projected canopy area (TPCA), and the CROPGRO crop growth model. Model simulations of soybean TPCA and canopy height were evaluated against data for hydroponic soybean grown under two separate light/dark cycle temperature regimes (23/19 degrees C and 26/22 degrees C). Our results suggest that TPCA and canopy height are potentially useful variables for closed-loop plant production in controlled environments during the first few weeks of growth, before canopy closure.
pubmed: 11543267 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1999/00000006/00000004/art00004
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Closed ecological systems for space travel and extraterrestrial habitation

1999

J Neal Phillips Jr

publication: Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology

Abstract

Man's requirements for provision of oxygen, food and removal of carbon dioxide and body wastes dictate the necessity for reliable life-support systems aboard a space. vehicle or in sedentary habitations on extraterrestrial bodies. That these basic needs may best be met by expendable systems for times up to 30 days has been adequately demonstrated, Extension of travel and habitation past 30 days imposes the need for nonexpendable or regenerative life-support systems. Numerous compelling reasons dictate that management of these life-support logistics can best be accomplished by biological organisms. Thus, the most rational approachappears to be synthesis of an ecological system modeled on the balance of terrestrial nature, which is biologically closed but thermodynamically open, The current status of knowledge and research in this approach is briefly reviewed. Unexpected problems are discussed and the delineation of major unsolved problems undertaken. Problems dealing with the basic biology of photosynthetic organisms, geometry of culture-vessel configurations, weightlessness, effects of space radiations, genetic stability, and illumination and intermittency effects are considered, Clear differentiation between bio-engineering and design engineering is shown and reviewed.
link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/2c1fd453a76d39989f7829b8ed1f0760/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=54631
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Tomato and soybean production on a shared recirculating hydroponic system

1999

C.L. Mackowiak,G.W. Stutte,R.M. Wheeler,L.M. Ruffe,N.C. Yorio

publication: … Symposium on Growing …

Partial Abstract

Recirculating hydroponic systems are being used to test the feasibility of using crops in NASA's Advanced Life Support (ALS) systems for long duration space missions. If crops can be grown in shared compartments with common nutrient solutions, this may reduce system complexity and improve system efficiency. Tomato and soybean are two crops proposed for ALS systems that are productive in a similar environment. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cv. Reimann Philipp 75/59 and soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) cv. Hoyt were grown in ...
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1999.481.27 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/481/481_27.htm
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Phasic temperature and photoperiod control for soybean using a modified CROPGRO Model

1999

J. Cavazzoni, T. Volk, B. Bugbee, T. Dougher

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

A modified CROPGRO model is applied to phasic temperature and photoperiod control in order to optimize soybean production for NASA's program in Advanced Life Support. Baseline model simulations were established using data from soybean temperature experiments conducted at elevated CO2 levels (1100 micromol mol-1) at Utah State University (USU). The model simulations show little advantage in using phasic temperature control alone to increase average seed yield rate over the USU experimental values. However, simulations that combine phasic control of temperature (two phases) and photoperiod (two phases) do indicate the potential to improve seed yield (in g m-2 day-1) by approximately 15% over those currently obtained experimentally at USU for soybean cultivar Hoyt. This temperature and photoperiod phasing is experimentally practical. The simulations suggest extending photoperiods over those typically used experimentally during later phases of the crop life cycle, which would lengthen grain fill duration and thereby increase mass per seed. The model simulations indicate that the timing, and duration of extended photoperiods would be very important due to possible reductions in seed number m-2. Besides affecting seed yield directly, the model simulations suggest that such reductions may also cause feedback inhibition of photosynthesis due to low seed sink strength at elevated CO2 levels.
pubmed: 11543266 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1999/00000006/00000004/art00003
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Synergies between plant research conducted for terrestrial and for space purposes

1999

M. André,P. Chagvardieff

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

During the past 10 years, the main part of CELSS studies has concerned the exploration of limits of plant productivity. Very high yields were obtained in continuous and high lighting, without reaching any limit. Concepts of mineral nutrition were renewed. CELSS activities now induce a development in the techniques of image processing applied to plants in order to follow the growth, to detect stresses or diseases or to pilot harvesting robots. Notable efforts concern the development of sensors, the study of trace contaminants and the micro-organisms monitoring. In parallel, several instruments for plant culture in closed systems were developed. The advantages of closure are emphasised in comparison with open flow systems. The concept of Artificial Ecosystems developed for space research is more and more taken into account by the scientific community. It is considered as a new tool to study basic and applied problems related to ecology and not especially concerned with space research.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(99)00313-0 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117799003130
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Transfer from long to short photoperiods affects production efficiency of day-neutral rice

1999

K. Rachelle Goldman,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: HortScience

Partial Abstract

The day-neutral, semidwarf rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivar Ai-Nan-Tsao was grown in a greenhouse under summer conditions using high-pressure sodium lamps to extend the natural photoperiod. After allowing 2 weeks for germination, stand establishment, and thinning to a consistent planting density of 212 plants/m2, stands were maintained under continuous lighting for 35 or 49 days before shifting to 8-or 12-h photoperiods until harvest 76 days after planting. Non-shifted control treatments consisting of 8-, 12-, or 24-h ...
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.34.5.875 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cary-Mitchell/publication/11804835_Transfer_from_Long_to_Sho...
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Maintaining constant root environments in floating hydroponics to study root-shoot relationships

1999

A.J. Both,L.D. Albright,S.S. Scholl,R.W. Langhans

publication: III International Workshop on Models for Plant Growth and Control of the Shoot and Root Environments in Greenhouses

Abstract

The design and operation of a floating hydroponic system are described. The nutrient solution temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration in this hydroponic system were maintained with two simple control mechanisms. During a 24 day growth trial with lettuce (Lactuca sativa L., cv Vivaldi), nutrient solution temperature was controlled to 24 ± 0.3 °C and the dissolved oxygen concentration to 8.4 ± 0.2 mg-L-1. Measurements of shoot fresh and dry mass as well as root dry mass of plants aged from 11 to 35 days after sowing were taken. Desired nutrition and pH levels in this closed recirculation system were maintained manually. Greenhouse air temperature and daily integrated light level were precisely maintained at consistent levels throughout the experiment. Example data of plant response showed a rapid decline in root-shoot ratio shortly after transplant, followed by a gradual decline towards final harvest (35 days after sowing). Root-shoot ratio at final harvest was 10%. Percentage of shoot dry matter declined steadily from 8% at transplant to 4% at final harvest. Results showed an improved environment control can result in highly uniform plant production.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1999.507.25 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/507/507_25.htm
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Dimensionless growth curves as a simple approach to predicting vegetative growth of lettuce

1999

L.D. Albright,A.J. Both,R.W. Langhans,E.F. Wheeler

publication: III International Workshop …

Partial Abstract

Growth equations may be relatively general and describe plant dry mass accumulations based on data representing wide ranges of environment parameter values or they may be narrow and apply only to limited ranges. This paper proposes an empirical approach of the second type, a method to derive, by regression growth functions that can be readily implemented on control computers to improve (or attempt to optimize) growth within a narrow range of growing conditions. The method assumes plant vegetative growth may be ...
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(99)00313-0 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/507/507_34.htm
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Direct recycling of human hygiene water into hydroponic plant growth systems

1999

C.A. Loader, J.L. Garland, L.H. Levine, K.L. Cook, C.L. Mackowiak, H.R. Vivenzio

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Direct recycling of gray water (human hygiene water) through plant production systems would reduce the need for additional space, mass, and energy for water reclamation in Advanced Life Support (ALS) systems. A plant production system designed to produce 25% of crew food needs could theoretically purify enough water through transpiration for 100% of crew water requirements. This scenario was tested through additions of shower and laundry water to recirculating hydroponic systems containing either wheat or soybean. Surfactant (Igepon TC-42) did not accumulate in the systems, and both the rate of surfactant disappearance and the proportion of Igepon-degrading microorganisms on the plant roots increased with time. A mechanism of surfactant degradation via the microbially mediated hydrolysis of the amide linkage and subsequent breakdown of fatty acid components is proposed. Fecal coliforms present in the human gray water were not detectable on the plant roots, indicating that human-associated microorganisms do not grow in the system. Overall plant growth was unaffected by gray water additions, although preliminary evidence suggests that reproduction may be inhibited.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/1999/00000006/00000002/art00009
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How far can sodium substitute for potassium in red beet?

1999

G.V. Subbarao, R.M. Wheeler, G.W. Stutte, L.H. Levine

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

Sodium (Na) movement between plants and humans is one of the more critical aspects of bioregenerative systems of life support, which NASA is studying for the establishment of long-term bases on the Lunar or Martian surface. This study was conducted to determine the extent to which Na can replace potassium (K) in red beet (Beta vulgaris L. ssp vulgaris) without adversely affecting metabolic functions such as water relations, photosynthetic rates, and thus growth. Two cultivars, Ruby Queen and Klein Bol, were grown for 42 days at 1200 micromoles mol-1 CO2 in a growth chamber using a re-circulating nutrient film technique with 0%, 75%, 95%, and 98% Na substitution for K in a modified half-strength Hoagland solution. Total biomass of Ruby Queen was greatest at 95% Na substitution and equal at 0% and 98% Na substitution. For Klein Bol, there was a 75% reduction in total biomass at 98% Na substitution. Nearly 95% of the total plant K was replaced with Na at 98% Na substitution in both cultivars. Potassium concentrations in leaves decreased from 120 g kg-1 dwt in 0% Na substitution to 3.5 g kg-1 dwt at 98% Na substitution. Leaf chlorophyll concentration, photosynthetic rate, and osmotic potential were not affected in either cultivar by Na substitution for K. Leaf glycinebetaine levels were doubled at 75% Na substitution in Klein Bol, but decreased at higher levels of Na substitution. For Ruby Queen, glycinebetaine levels in leaf increased with the first increase of Na levels and were maintained at the higher Na levels. These results indicate that in some cultivars of red beet, 95% of the normal tissue K can be replaced by Na without a reduction in growth.
doi: 10.1080/01904169909365751 pubmed: 11542657 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904169909365751
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The growth of wheat in three nutrient-providing substrates under consideration for spaceflight applications

1999

Howard G. Levine

publication: International Symposium on Growing Media and …

Partial Abstract

Three nutrient-providing substrates were evaluated for application in the growth of plants under spaceflight conditions. A synthetic zeolite pre-loaded with the essential elements for plant growth was compared to similarly loaded Balkanin and Bion-312 substrates. For each treatment, 1-day-old wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Super Dwarf) seedlings (n= 45) were planted in trays (31 cm x 17 cm x 9 cm) and grown for 95 days 300 μmoles m-2 s-1 photosynthetically active radiation; 20: 4 day: night cycle; 20–22 C; 70–85% relative ...
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1999.481.26 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/481/481_26.htm
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Studies on techniques for measuring photosynthesis and transpiration of plant stands in the closed plant experiment facility in the CEEF

1999

Y. Tako, R. Arai, K. Otsubo, K. Nitta

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Nutrient uptake by wheat grown in clinoptilolite-apatite substrates

1999

J.E. Gruener, D.W. Ming, K.E. Henderson, C. Carrier

publication: Natural Zeolites for the …

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Plant disease progress can be monitored by CO2 gas exchange of the plant canopy

1999

Melanie Johnstone,Bernard Grodzinski,Hai Yu,John Sutton

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The occurrence of disease epidemics in bioregenerative life support systems would seriously limit the production of essential life support requirements. The capacity of diseased plants in closed environment chambers to scrub CO2 was studied with lettuce plants infected with a common greenhouse pathogen, Pythium.At harvest, infected lettuce showed less edible biomass, decreased leaf area, and reduced photosynthesis averaging 50% on a per chamber basis. These results and others are discussed to show the potential of using existing instrumentation in life support systems to monitor the health of the plant canopy, predicting early onset of disease and refining remediation strategies.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2023 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2023/
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Equivalent system mass studies of missions and concepts

1999

Alan E. Drysdale,Mike Ewert,Anthony J. Hanford

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

This paper applies an equivalent system mass (ESM) approach to life support (LS) for a number of mission scenarios, including a manned Mars mission, ISS, and closed chamber tests on the ground. Supply, physicochemical- (PC) and bioregeneration, and in situ resource utilization (ISRU) have been considered. Credible mass equivalencies are derived for a number of missions, and resulting distributions of ESM among the various subsystems are identified for different mission assumptions. Preliminary recommendations are made for cost-effective hybrid scenarios using the four approaches identified above.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2081 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2081/
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Modeling wheat harvest index as a function of date of anthesis

1999

M.J. Pitts, G.W. Stutte

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

A plant growth model developed by Volk and colleagues was modified to partition plant mass production after anthesis into grain and inedible biomass. Using data on wheat (Triticum aestivum) grown in the NASA CELSS Biomass Production Chamber to supply constants for the model, we showed that delaying the date of anthesis 7 days resulted in a 20% decrease in the harvest index. Multiple model components were then assembled to demonstrate the effect of an environmental system failure.
pubmed: 11543264 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1999/00000006/00000004/art00001
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The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System: A 12-month test of an artificial aquatic ecosystem

1999

V. Blüm,M. Andriske,Ch. Ludwig,U. Paaßen,D. Voeste

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System" (C.E.B.A.S.) is finally disposed for long-term multi-generation experiments with aquatic organisms in a space station. Therefore a minimum operation time of three months is required. It is verified in three versions of laboratory prototypes. The third one passed successfully a 12 months mid-term test in 1995/96 thus demonstrating its high biological stability. The third version of the C.E.B.A.S. consists of a 100 l animal tank, two plant cultivators with a volume of 15 l each with independent illuminations, a 3.0 l semibiological "mechanical" filter, a 3.0 l bacteria filter, a heating/cooling device and a dummy filter unit. The live-bearing teleost Xiphophorus helleri is the vertebrate and the pulmonate water snail Biomphalana glabrata the invertebrate experimental animal in the system. The rootless higher water plant Ceratophyllum demersum is the producer organism. Ammonia oxidizing bacteria and other microorganisms settle in the filters. A sample data acquisition is combined with temperature and plant illumination control. Besides of the space aspects the C.E.B.A.S. proved to be an extremely suitable tool to investigate the organism and subcomponent interactions in a well defined terrestrial aquatic closed ecosystem by providing physical, chemical and biological data which allow an approach to a comprehensive system analysis. Moreover the C.E.B.A.S. is the base for the development of innovative combined animal-plant aquaculture systems for human nutrition on earth which could be implemented into bioregenerative life support systems with a higher degree of complexity suitable for lunar or planetary bases.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00487-1 pubmed: 11542546 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117799004871
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Nutrient dynamics and pH / charge balance relationship in hydroponic solutions

1999

J.D. Lea-Cox,G.W. Stutte,W.L. Berry,R.M. Wheeler

publication: … Symposium on Growing …

Partial Abstract

Most commercial hydroponic systems currently require the addition of acid or base to correct plant-induced charge-imbalances in the nutrient solution. It has been long-known that varying concentrations of NH 4+ and NO 3-in nutrient solutions affects the direction of pH change, as a consequence of H+ and anion-equivalent efflux by plants. A series of experiments with wheat (Triticum aestivum cv.'Yecora rojo') were performed to explore the contribution of other cationic and anionic species to this charge balance relationship over ...
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1999.481.25 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/481/481_25.htm
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Zeoponic Substrates for Space Applications: Advances in the Use of Natural Zeolites for Plant Growth

1999

D.W. Ming, E.R. Allen

publication: Natural Microporous Materials in Environmental Technology (BOOK)

Abstract

Natural zeolites have unique physical and chemical properties, which make them attractive for use in slow-release fertilisation for plants, zeoponic plant growth substrates, and soil conditioning and remediation. Zeoponic substrates are defined as artificial soils in which zeolites are a major component. Over the past 10 years, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has been developing a zeoponic substrate for plant growth in space. The primary zeolite used in these substrates is clinoptilolite, because of its selectivity for K+ and NH4 + and its stability in soil-based systems. In addition to NH4- and K-exchanged clinoptilolite, substrates developed by NASA contain either natural or synthetic apatite. Slow-release fertilisation has been achieved in this system by dissolution of either natural or synthetic apatite and cation exchange reactions of clinoptilolite. The synthetic apatites are hydroxyapatites in which Mg, S, and the micronutrients have been substituted into its structure for either Ca and PO4. Hence, these substrates have the capability of supplying all of the essential plant growth nutrients with only the addition of water.
In several NASA studies, wheat grown in zeoponic substrates produced greater total dry matter as compared to wheat grown in control substrates watered with nutrient solutions. In another study, however, significantly less wheat grain was produced by plant grown in zeoponic substrates compared to plants grown in control substrates, and this was attributed to reduced seed set caused by the NH4-N source from clinoptilolite exchange. In a subsequent study, the addition of nitrifying bacteria and dolomite to zeoponic substrates produced higher wheat seed yields than control substrates, suggesting that the nitrifying bacteria converted NH4-N to NO3-N, which is more likely to enhance seed set. In a recent plant-growth chamber study, wheat seed production from plant grown in a hydroponic system slightly out performed a zeoponics system; however, the seed production from plants grown in the zeoponics substrate was equivalent to approximately 200 bushels/acre, substantially higher than yields obtained in the field.
Wheat and brassica have been grown in zeoponic substrates on the U.S.A. Space Shuttle. During an 8-day flight the growth and development of both plant species on orbit appeared normal and similar to those of plants grown in ground controls. Zeoponic substrates may be used for long-term, plant growth experiments on the International Space Station.
Several companies in the United States are marketing zeoponic or zeolite-based products, primarily for the golf industry. One company has developed a zeoponic substrate called “ZeoPro™”, which is being used as a slow-release fertiliser on golf greens. Because of the recent progress made in the development of zeoponic substrates, we anticipate that the application of zeoponic substrates in the horticultural, agricultural, and turfgrass industries will significantly increase over the next few years. It is likely that these products will be used to improve fertiliser-use efficiency and in environmental protection. With continued sound scientific research, it is likely that zeolites will be used extensively in the plant growth industry during the first part of 21st century.

link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-4499-5_11
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Final Plant Experiments on Mir Provide Second Generation Wheat and Seeds

1999

G.E. Bingham, M.A. Levinskikh, V.N. Sytchev, I.G. Podolsky

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An aquatic ecosystem in Space

1999

G.-H. Wang,G.-B. Li,C.-X. Hu,Y.-D. Liu,L.-R. Song,G.-H. Tong,X.-M. Liu,E.-T. Cheng

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Preliminary study of greenhouse grown Swiss chard in mixtures of compost and Mars regolith simulant

1999

Matthew R. Gilrain,John A. Hogan,Robert M. Cowan,Melvin S. Finstein,Logan S. Logendra

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The growth of Swiss chard in compost, Mars regolith simulant, and mixtures thereof, was studied for application in Advanced Life Support (ALS) systems, particularly Mars/lunar based operations. The purpose was to begin characterizing a sustainable biomass production method based on compost derived from inedible biomass. Compost would serve both as a means of recycling plant nutrients while improving the physical qualities of regolith as a plant growth medium. An outpost’s cropping area could be expanded by blending a minimal amount of compost (scarce, initially imported resource) and a maximal amount of regolith (plentiful local resource), consistent with adequate crop yields. Swiss chard was selected for the study as it is an ALS crop candidate for which there are little data.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2021 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2021/
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Spinach: Nitrate analysis of an advanced life support (ALS) crop cultured under ALS candidate artificial light source

1999

Corinne F. Johnson,Robert W. Langhans,Louis D. Albright,Gerald F. Combs,Ross M. Welch,Laurence Heller,Raymond P. Glahn,Raymond M. Wheeler,Gregory D. Goins

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Nitrate concentration in spinach and lettuce is known to be influenced by light quantity. The enzyme nitrate reductase is regulated by phytochrome in some species, and in the presence of light, electrons that reduce nitrite to ammonium come from photosynthetic electron transport. It was hypothesized that light quality as well as light quantity may be used to manipulate nitrate concentration in spinach. To test this, narrow-band wavelength light-emitting diode (LED) sources (670 nm and 735 nm peak emission) were utilized in combination with cool white fluorescent (CWF) lamps. Nitrate concentration was compared in spinach seedlings grown for four weeks under CWF, followed by one of three 5-day pre-harvest light treatments. The three different light quality regimes were 1) CWF, 2) CWF + RED (670 nm) LED, and 3) CWF + FR (735 nm LED). Ion chromatograph analysis of freeze-dried tissue showed a 10-fold increase in nitrate concentration in the CWF+ FR (0.12 mmoles/g dw) treatment over the CWF (0.01 mmoles/g dw) and CWF+Red (0.01 mmoles/g dw) treatments. The results of this study suggest that selection of ALS light sources should not only consider crop yield and energy efficiency, but should also take into account the influences of light quality on food safety and human nutrition.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2107 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2107/
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Effects of low ethylene levels on USU-Apogee and Super Dwarf wheat

1999

S.P. Klassen,W.F. Campbell,B.G. Bugbee

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Ethylene is a potent plant hormone. Actively growing crop plants produce ethylene throughout development and this accumulates in the air of closed plant growth chambers. Ethylene levels in the field rarely rise above 1 ppb (0.001 ppm), but levels in closed plant growth chambers at NASA-KSC routinely increase to 0.05 to 0.1 ppm. Reduced seed set and even complete sterility have been associated with elevated ethylene levels, but no controlled studies have been done to clearly implicate ethylene in the poor seed set. We examined ethylene levels from 1 to 20 ppm on Super-Dwarf wheat in replicate growth chambers and compared the effects to control chambers without ethylene. Plants grew well at 20 ppm ethylene but plant height decreased as ethylene increased. There was no effect on the rate of development as indicated by the time of heading. Seed set and yield were excellent in the control chambers, but plants in all the ethylene chambers were completely sterile. In a second study, effects of 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.0 ppm ethylene on USU-Apogee wheat were compared to a control chamber. A single treatment receiving 1.0 ppm ethylene prior to anthesis and no ethylene following boot stage was also tested. As in the previous study, there was a linear decrease in plant height with increasing ethylene. Longitudinal leaf rolling (into cylinders) was visually apparent at all ethylene levels as compared to flat leaves on control plants. Leaf rolling is a sensitive indicator of ethylene pollution in closed chambers. Seed set was reduced at all ethylene levels except the pre-anthesis treatment. These studies are an essential prerequisite to the design and sizing of ethylene scrubbing equipment for bioregenerative life support.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2025 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2025/
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Top level modeling of biomass production component of ALSS

1999

David H. Fleisher,K.C. Ting,Michael Hill,Gholamhossein Eghbali

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Computer modeling of top-level advanced life support systems (ALSS) has been initiated with completion of a prototype model of the biomass production component (BPC). Object oriented analysis and design were utilized to develop a flexible programming structure capable of expansion and incorporation with other components of the ALSS model. The biomass production model (BPM) has a world wide web (WWW) -accessible user interface which facilitates data viewing, modification, and input. Users utilize default values in the existing database or enter data specific to a scenario under consideration. The BPM simulates production of multiple crops within controlled environments, tracking automation, labor, production of edible and inedible biomass, and resource needs. At the conclusion of a simulation run, graphs showing the history of key variable values are available for the user to view on the monitor. This paper focuses on design and implementation the BPM.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2041 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2041/
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Biomass production systems (BPS) environmental control subsystem performance

1999

Robert C. Morrow,Thomas M. Crabb

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The Biomass Production System (BPS) was developed to meet science, biotechnology and commercial plant growth needs in Space. The BPS is a double middeck locker equivalent payload with four internal plant chambers. The chambers can be removed to allow manipulation or sampling of specimens, and are sealed to allow CO2 and water vapor exchange measurements. Each of the growth chambers has independent control of temperature, humidity, lighting, and carbon dioxide levels. Preliminary acceptance and performance testing has demonstrated temperature control within ±1.0°C (between 20°C and 30°C) and humidity control within ±5% (between 60% and 90% RH, depending on ambient temperature and plant load). The fluorescent lighting system provides light levels between 60 and 350 μmol m−2s−1. The CO2 control system controls to the greater of ±50 ppm or ±5% (with plants, as a scrubber is not currently available). Performance and science related tests are ongoing to characterize BPS function under a variety of environmental and operational conditions.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2180 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2180/
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Phytochemicals: Implications for Long Duration Space Missions

1999

G.W. Stutte

publication: Biologically active natural products: agrochemicals

Partial Abstract

Phytochemicals are naturally occurring compounds produced by plants. These compounds are essential for normal growth and development and can be specific for a given plant species or cultivar. Phytochemicals also are essential components of human nutrition and include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, fiber, and vitamins. Secondary phytochemicals, such as polyphenols and flavanoids, provide human nutritional and health benefits. Phytochemicals associated with flavor and aroma play a significant, yet currently ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=IFIjmMJA-vQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA275&dq=Phytochemicals:+Impli...
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Ground-based studies and space experiment with potato leaf explants

1999

T.W. Tibbitts, J.C. Croxdale, C.S. Brown, R.M. Wheeler, G.D. Goins

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

This article details the extensive preflight research required to make a plant experiment conform to the constraints imposed by the spaceflight system. Potato explants, each consisting of a leaf, an axillary bud, and small stem section, were flown on USML-2 in the ASTROCULTURE™ flight hardware to study tuber formation from the axillary bud during the 16 days of flight. To obtain acceptable explant materials: 1) parent plants had to be grown under reduced light (150 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPF) to ensure uniform bud and tuber development, 2) leaves had to be trimmed to fit the small size of the flight growth chamber, and 3) only young, fully expanded leaves from plants 5–7 weeks old could be used. After six scrubs, the experiment was flown successfully October 20 to November 5 and produced tubers and accumulated starch similar to that produced on ground controls.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/1999/00000006/00000002/art00004
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Nutrient-substituted hydroxyapatites: Synthesis and characterization

1999

D. C. Golden,D. W. Ming

publication: Soil Science Society of America Journal

Abstract

Incorporation of Mg, S, and plant-essential micronutrients into the structure of synthetic hydroxyapatite (HA) may be advantageous for closed-loop systems, such as will be required on Lunar and Martian outposts, because these apatites can be used as slow-release fertilizers. Our objective was to synthesize HA with Ca, P, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, B, and Cl incorporated into the structure, i.e., nutrient-substituted apatites. Hydroxyapatite, carbonate hydroxyapatite (CHA), nutrient-substituted hydroxyapatite (NHA), and nutrient-substituted carbonate hydroxyapatite (NCHA) were synthesized by precipitating from solution. Chemical and mineralogical analysis of precipitated samples indicated a considerable fraction of the added cations were incorporated into HA, without mineral impurities. Particle size of the HA was in the 1 to 40 nm range, and decreased with increased substitution of nutrient elements. The particle shape of HA was elongated in the c-direction in unsubstituted HA and NHA but more spherical in CHA and NCHA. The substitution of cations and anions in the HA structure was confirmed by the decrease of the d[002] spacing of HA with substitution of ions with an ionic radius less than that of Ca or P. The DTPA-extractable Cu ranged from 8 to 8429 mg kg-1, Zn ranged from 57 to 1279 mg kg-1, Fe from 211 to 2573 mg kg-1, and Mn from 190 to 1719 mg kg-1, depending on the substitution level of each element in HA. Nutrient-substituted HA has the potential to be used as a slow-release fertilizer to supply micronutrients, S, and Mg in addition to Ca and P.
doi: 10.2136/sssaj1999.03615995006300030032x link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/sssaj1999.03615995006300030032x
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Toward an understanding of blue light effects on diverse species: Implications for Advanced Life Support Systems

1999

Tracy A.O. Dougher,Bruce Bugbee

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

‘Blue’ photons are energetically expensive to produce, so the most energy-efficient lamps contain the least amount of blue light. ‘Blue’ photons are not used as efficiently in photosynthesis as ‘red’ photons, but blue light has dramatic effects on plant growth. We studied the growth and development of soybean, wheat, and lettuce plants under high pressure sodium and metal halide lamps with yellow filters creating 5 fractions of blue light (< 0.1%, 2%, 6%, 12%, and 26%) at 200 and 500 μmol m-2 s-1 PPF. The response of dry mass, stem length, leaf area, SLA, and tillering/branching to blue light was species dependent. Blue light fraction determined the stem elongation response in soybean, whereas the absolute amount of blue light determined the stem elongation response in lettuce. Lettuce was highly sensitive to blue light fraction between 0% and 6% blue, but results were complicated by sensitivity to lamp type. For the parameters we studied, wheat did not respond to blue light. Soybean stem length decreased with increasing blue light fraction and leaf area was greatest at 6% blue, but total dry mass was unchanged. The data suggest that lettuce growth and development requires some added blue light, but soybean and wheat may not.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2108 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2108/
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AG-Pod: The integration of existing technologies for efficient, affordable space flight agriculture

1999

J. M. Clawson,A. Hoehn,L. S. Stodieck,P. Todd

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Technology for microgravity plant growth has matured to a level which allows detailed gravitational plant biology and commercial plant biotechnology studies. Consequently, plants have been shown to adapt to the space flight environment, which validates their use in advanced life support applications. However, the volume available for plant growth inside pressurized modules is severely constrained, both in present and future spacecraft. Furthermore, the required power and heat rejection associated with the artificial lighting on existing systems, and the resulting weight and volume increases, affect the viability of these systems for life support. The Autonomous Garden Pod (AG-Pod), an inflatable module specifically for plants, resides outside the habitable modules and uses passive solar illumination. It’s based on existing technologies including flight-proven plant growth subsystems, commercial satellite thermal systems, and off-the-shelf inflatable technology. AG-Pod will support low Earth orbit as well as planetary missions, including transit and surface operations.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2176 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2176/
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The use of soluble organic matter (SOM) to promote plant nutrient bioavailability in bioregenerative life support system

1999

P. R. Grossl,C. L. Mackowiak

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Although chemical methods have been proposed to remove soluble organic matter (SOM) from hydroponic solutions, it may be a benefit to retain this material to improve nutrient solution mineral bioavailability. Like chelates, SOM can enhance bioavailability by complexing nutrient ions, and thus, preventing precipitate formation. Iron phosphate is a common precipitate that forms in hydroponic and soil solutions. Initial studies have shown that wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Apogee) plants grown in solution culture containing 35 μM Fe supplied as either FeCl3 + HEDTA, or FeCl3 + HA (commercial humic acid) resulted in comparable growth and seed yields. Leaf tissue Fe content was similar between treatments but Zn concentrations were greater in leaves grown with HA until 42 days, after which there were no treatment differences. Ongoing studies will isolate and chemically characterize the SOM obtained from bioreactor effluents and examine their role in nutrient bioavailability.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2068 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2068/
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Hydroponic nutrient solution management strategies for optimizing yield of sweetpotato storage roots

1999

Gregory D. Goins,Neil C. Yorio,Raymond M. Wheeler,Desmond G. Mortley,Philip A. Loretan

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Under certain nutrient solution management practices in hydroponic systems, sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] plants can exhibit excessive shoot growth and reduced storage root yield. An experiment was conducted which compared sweetpotato production in nutrient film technique (NFT) systems either with daily nutrient solution replenishment + real-time pH control or with nutrient solution replenishment 3-times per week + periodic pH adjustment. Results showed that replenishment of nutrient solution on a daily basis produced excessive foliage growth with very little storage root production. Nutrient solution replenishment 3-times per week produced manageable vine growth and respectable storage root yields.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2022 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2022/
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Designing experiments for direct measurement of wheat photosynthesis in microgravity

1999

Gregory D. Goins,Gary W. Stutte,David K. Chapman

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Procedures were developed for a future experiment to measure wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) photosynthesis in microgravity. Specific attention was given to growing and maintaining vigorous wheat plants relative to the challenging conditions predicted in microgravity. These ground-based tests included comparisons of different rooting media, media, wicking materials, and nutrient delivery system pressures. To facilitate seed germination in microgravity, several clinostat tests were conducted to characterize the importance of initial seed orientation. Following establishment of a vigorous crop canopy, photosynthesis rates were measured and found to be affected by mutual plant shading within the growth chambers.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2179 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2179/
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The utilization of recovered nutrients from composted inedible wheat biomass to support plant growth for BLSS

1999

Neil C. Yorio,Michael P. Alazraki,Jay L. Garland,Teresa H. Englert,Lisa M. Ruffe

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

As part of NASA’s continued interest in the feasibility of Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS), research has focused on increasing the efficiency of bioregenerative technology. To reduce the costs associated with recovery of plant nutrients from inedible crop biomass, composting combined with leaching appears to be an attractive alternative to continuously stirred tank reactors. Tests at Kennedy Space Center investigating the effects of pre-processing of inedible wheat biomass composted for 21 days prior to leaching on nutrient recovery and growth of a subsequent wheat crop have been performed. In long-term hydroponic tests, pre-processed compost leachate was amended with reagent grade nutrients to approximate half-strength Hoagland’s solution. Although reductions in growth and yield were observed for plants grown on pre-processed compost leachate compared to the control, the differences were not statistically significant. These results indicate that there appears to be no phytotoxic effects associated with recovered nutrients from composted inedible crop biomass.
doi: 10.4271/1999-01-2062 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/1999-01-2062/
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Intracanopy lighting influences radiation capture, productivity, and leaf senescence in cowpea canopies

2000

Jonathan M. Frantz,Robert J. Joly,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Traditional overhead lighting of dense crop stands in controlled environments favors development of upper leaf layers to maximize interception of light incident at the top of the foliar canopy. The resultant mutual shading of lower leaves in the understory of the canopy can severely limit productivity and yield of planophile crops. Intracanopy lighting alleviated the effects of mutual shading in dense, vegetative stands of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp ssp. unguiculata] growing in a controlled environment by sustaining irradiance within the understory throughout development of this edible-foliage crop. For an overhead lighting system, photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) in the understory was reduced to 1% of its initial value by 35 days of growth. PPF in an intracanopy-lighted stand remained within 30 μmol·m-2·s-1 of initial values throughout the 50-day cropping period. Spectral distribution of radiation within the intracanopy-lighted stand also remained relatively constant throughout canopy development. In the overhead-lighted stand, violet and blue radiation in the understory decreased as much as 60% from initial values. Stability of the radiation environment within the intracanopy-lighted stand delayed leaf senescence 27 days beyond when interior leaves of the overhead-lighted canopy began to turn yellow on day 16. The intracanopy-lighted stand produced twice as much edible biomass per unit electrical energy consumed by lamps as for the overhead-lighted system. The treatment differences were due to the continuous presence of understory irradiation when using intracanopy lighting but not when using overhead lighting, and they underscore the importance of the entire foliar canopy in realizing the full productivity potential of dense crop stands in controlled environments.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.125.6.694 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cary-Mitchell/publication/267950870_Intracanopy_Lighting_Inf...
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Genetic and environmental influences on the nutritive value of spinach, Spinacia oleracea, for humans

2000

C.F. Johonson

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) is a system of horticultural and engineering techniques allowing production of food crops in environments that might otherwise be unfavorable for agriculture. NASA utilizes a unique type of CEA requiring complete system closure for environmental control. Spinach, Spinacia oleracea, is among the candidate crops selected for NASA's Advanced Life Support System. Before the NASA food-crops list is finalized, potential concerns with each candidate crop must be addressed ...
link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/01923a5ed489793e45fbd4715f4acde6/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=...
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Spinach growth and development under innovative narrow- and broad-spectrum lighting sources

2000

Gregory D. Goins,Neil C. Yorio

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

A primary challenge for supporting plants in space is to provide as much photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) as possible, while conserving electrical power. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and microwave lamps are innovative artificial lighting technologies with several appealing features for supporting plant growth in controlled environments. Because of their rugged design, small mass and volume, and narrow spectral output, red and blue LEDs are particularly suited for outfitting plant growth hardware in spaceflight systems. The sulfur-microwave electrode-less high-intensity discharge (HID) produces a bright broad-spectrum visible light at a higher electrical conversion efficiency than conventional light sources. Experiments compared the performance and productivity of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) grown under conventional lighting sources (high-pressure sodium and cool-white fluorescent lamps) with microwave lamps and various wavelengths of red LEDs. In terms of plant growth and development, experimental results showed that microwave lamps and LEDs were as effective in producing spinach biomass as conventional lamps.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2290 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2290/
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Collaborative Development of a Space Flight Experiment Comparing Two Plant Nutrient Delivery Systems

2000

Bill Wells,Alex Hoehn,Howard G. Levine

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Engineers and scientists from BioServe Space Technologies and Kennedy Space Center (KSC) are developing a flight-rated payload for the evaluation of two space-based plant nutrient delivery systems (NDS's). The hardware is comprised of BioServe's Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (PGBA) and KSC's Porous Tube Insert Module (PTIM). The PGBA, a double-middeck locker, will serve as the host carrier for the PTIM and will provide computer control of temperature, relative humidity, and carbon dioxide levels. The PTIM will insert into the PGBA's growth chamber and will facilitate the side-by-side comparison of the two NDS's: 1) the porous tube NDS, consisting of six porous tubes with seeds mounted in close proximity to the tubes, and 2) a substrate-based NDS, with three compartments each containing a porous tube embedded in a particulate substrate. This project demonstrates that through collaborative efforts, new hardware costs can be reduced while simultaneously minimizing risk through the use of flight-experienced systems.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2509 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2509/
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Preliminary development and evaluation of an algae-based air regeneration system

2000

J.A. Nienow

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The potential of air regeneration system based on the growth of microalgae on the surface of porous ceramic tubes is evaluated. The algae have been maintained in the system for extended periods, up to 360 days. Preliminary measurements of the photosynthetic capacity have been made for Chlorella vulgaris (UTEX 259), Neospongiococcum punctatum (UTEX 786), Stichococcus sp., and Gloeocapsa sp. Under standard test conditions (photosynthetic photon flux approximately 66 micromoles m-2 s-1, initial CO2 concentration approximately 450 micromoles mol-1), mature tubes remove up to 0.2 micromoles of CO2 per tube per minute. The rate of removal increases with photon flux up to at least 225 micromoles m-2 s-1 (PPF); peak rates of 0.35 micromoles of CO2 per tube per minute have been achieved with Chlorella vulgaris. These rates correspond to between 120 and 210 micromoles of CO2 removed per square meter of projected area per minute.
pubmed: 11543558 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/2000/00000007/00000002/art00006
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Life Sciences; Space Life Support Systems and the Lunar Farside Crater Saha Proposal

2000

T.W. Tibbitts, R.M. Wheeler, C.A. Mitchell, J. Heidmann

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

no abstract
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20040088915
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Gravity independence of seed-to-seed cycling in Brassica rapa.

2000

Mary E. Musgrave,Anxiu Kuang,Ying Xiao,Stephen C. Stout,Gail E. Bingham,L. Greg Briarty,Margarita A. Levinskikh,Vladimir N. Sychev,Igor G. Podolski

publication: Planta

Abstract

Growth of higher plants in the microgravity environment of orbital platforms has been problematic. Plants typically developed more slowly in space and often failed at the reproductive phase. Short-duration experiments on the Space Shuttle showed that early stages in the reproductive process could occur normally in microgravity, so we sought a long-duration opportunity to test gravity's role throughout the complete life cycle. During a 122-d opportunity on the Mir space station, full life cycles were completed in microgravity with Brassica rapa L. in a series of three experiments in the Svet greenhouse. Plant material was preserved in space by chemical fixation, freezing, and drying, and then compared to material preserved in the same way during a high-fidelity ground control. At sampling times 13 d after planting, plants on Mir were the same size and had the same number of flower buds as ground control plants. Following hand-pollination of the flowers by the astronaut, siliques formed. In microgravity, siliques ripened basipetally and contained smaller seeds with less than 20% of the cotyledon cells found in the seeds harvested from the ground control. Cytochemical localization of storage reserves in the mature embryos showed that starch was retained in the spaceflight material, whereas protein and lipid were the primary storage reserves in the ground control seeds. While these successful seed-to-seed cycles show that gravity is not absolutely required for any step in the plant life cycle, seed quality in Brassica is compromised by development in microgravity.
doi: 10.1007/PL00008148 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/PL00008148
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Mars greenhouses: Concept and Challenges

2000

R.M. Wheeler, C. Martin-Brennan

publication: Meeting: Mars Greenhouses: Concepts and Challenges

Abstract

Topic covered include :Plants on Mars: On the Next Mission and in the Long Term Future; Bubbles in the Rocks: Natural and Artificial Caves and Cavities as Like Support Structures; Challenges for Bioregenerative Life Support on Mars; Cost Effectiveness Issues; Low Pressure Systems for Plant Growth; Plant Responses to Rarified Atmospheres; Can CO2 be Used as a Pressurizing Gas for Mars Greenhouses?; Inflatable Habitats Technology Development; Development of an Inflatable Greenhouse for a Modular Crop Production System; Mars Inflatable Greenhouse Workshop; Design Needs for Mars Deployable Greenhouse; Preliminary Estimates of the Possibilities for Developing a Deployable Greenhouse for a Planetary Surface Mars; Low Pressure Greenhouse Concepts for Mars; Mars Greenhouse Study: Natural vs. Artificial Lighting; and Wire Culture for an Inflatable Mars Greenhouse and Other Future Inflatable Space Growth Chambers.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20050182966
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The Biofiltration of Indoor Air: Air Flux and temperature Influences the removal of toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene

2000

Alan B. Darlington,James F. Dat,Michael A. Dixon

publication: Environmental Science & Technology

Abstract

An alternative approach to maintaining indoor air quality may be the biofiltration of air circulated within the space. A biofilter with living botanical matter as the packing medium reduced concentrations of toluene, ethylbenzene, and o-xylene concurrently present at parts per billion (volume) in indoor air. The greatest reduction in concentrations per pass was under the slowest influent air flux (0.025 m s-1); however, the maximum amount removed per unit time occurred under the most rapid flux (0.2 m s-1). There was little difference between the different compounds with removal capacities of between 1.3 and 2.4 μmol m-3biofilter s-1 (between 0.5 and 0.9 g m-3biofilter h -1) depending on influent flux and temperature. Contrary to biofilters subjected to higher influent concentrations, the optimal temperatures for removal by this biofilter decreased to less than 20 °C at the most rapid flux for all three compounds. Microbial activity was decreased at these cooler temperatures suggesting the biofilter was not microbially limited but rather was limited by the availability of substrate. The cooler temperatures allowed greater partitioning of the VOCs into the water column which had a greater impact on removal than its reduction in microbial activity.
doi: 10.1021/es0010507 link: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es0010507
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Graywater processing in recirculating hydroponic systems: Phytotoxicity, surfactant degradation, and bacterial dynamics

2000

JL Garland, LH Levine, NC Yorio, JL Adams, KL Cook

publication: Water Research

Abstract

Incorporation of human hygiene water (graywater) into hydroponic plant production systems, and subsequent recovery of the water transpired by the plants, is one potential means for water purification and recycling in bioregenerative life support systems under development for long duration space missions. Surfactant phytotoxicity and the potential for growth of human-associated microorganisms were assessed in studies of wheat and lettuce in controlled environmental chambers to provide baseline information for future studies with actual graywater streams. Igepon TC-42 (sodium N-coconut acid-N-methyl taurate), a surfactant designated for use on the International Space Station and a common ingredient of soaps and detergents, was added to plant systems in three different modes: (1) pulse addition of 875 mg m−2 growing area once a day, (2) continuous addition of 875 mg m−2 over the course of a day, and (3) variable addition of 0–3000 mg m−2 d−1 based on plant water demand. The survival of three human-associated bacteria (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) in the plant nutrient delivery systems were monitored following introduction 6 (wheat) or 3 (lettuce) days after planting (DAP). Igepon rapidly disappeared (i.e., a half-life of less than 1 h) following an initial adaptation period lasting less than 2 days. Microbial degradation of Igepon was supported by appearance of the degradation intermediate methyl taurine and an increase in the numbers of bacteria able to grow on media containing Igepon as the sole carbon source in the Igepon treated systems relative to the control. Wheat growth was not significantly affected by any of the Igepon treatments, but lettuce yield was significantly reduced in the pulse and continuous treatments. E. coli and S. aureus decreased below detection limits within 3–5 days within the systems, but P. aeruginosa persisted in the rhizosphere, nutrient solution, and nutrient delivery system biofilm for the duration of the wheat (70-day) and lettuce (28-day) experiments.
doi: 10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00085-3 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135400000853
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Adaptation of SUBSTOR for hydroponic, controlled environment white potato production

2000

D.H. Fleisher, J. Cavazzoni, G.A. Giacomelli, K.C. Ting

publication: 2000 ASAE Annual International Meeting

Abstract

SUBSTOR, a process-oriented crop growth and development field model included with DSSAT software, was modified for controlled environment hydroponic production of white potato (cv. Norland) under elevated carbon dioxide concentration. Modifications were primarily based on growth and phenological data obtained via in-house experiments in ebb and flood equipped growth chambers at Rutgers University. Results from published literature were also used for additional modification where appropriate. The adaptations made to SUBSTOR included adjustment of input files for hydroponic cultural conditions, calibration of genetic coefficients, parameter tuning such as for radiation use efficiency, and source code changes. The latter included accounting for the absorption of light reflected from the surface below the canopy, an increased senescence rate, adding a carbon (mass) balance to the model, and a modified response of crop growth rate to CO2 concentration. Modified-SUBSTOR predictions were then compared with data from in-house experiments and Kennedy Space Center's Biomass Production Chamber.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20003025191
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Analysis of edible oil processing options for the BIO-Plex and advanced life support system

2000

C.J. Greenwalt, J. Hunter

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Edible oil is a critical component of the proposed plant-based Advanced Life Support (ALS) diet. Soybean, peanut, and single-cell oil are the oil source options to date. In terrestrial manufacture, oil is ordinarily extracted with hexane, an organic solvent. However, exposed solvents are not permitted in the spacecraft environment or in enclosed human tests by National Aeronautics and Space Administration due to their potential danger and handling difficulty. As a result, alternative oil-processing methods will need to be utilized. Preparation and recovery options include traditional dehulling, crushing, conditioning, and flaking, extrusion, pressing, water extraction, and supercritical extraction. These processing options were evaluated on criteria appropriate to the Advanced Life Support System and BIO-Plex application including: product quality, product stability, waste production, risk, energy needs, labor requirements, utilization of nonrenewable resources, usefulness of by-products, and versatility and mass of equipment to determine the most appropriate ALS edible oil-processing operation.
pubmed: 11676438 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2000/00000007/00000003/art00002
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Growth, pod, and seed yield, and gas exchange of hydroponically grown peanut in response to CO2 enrichment

2000

K. Stanciel,D.G. Mortley,D.R. Hileman,P.A. Loretan,C.K. Bonsi,W.A. Hill

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The effects of elevated CO2 on growth, pod, and seed yield, and gas exchange of 'Georgia Red' peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) were evaluated under controlled environmental conditions. Plants were exposed to concentrations of 400 (ambient), 800, and 1200 micromoles mol-1 CO2 in reach-in growth chambers. Foliage fresh and dry weights increased with increased CO2 up to 800 micromoles mol-1, but declined at 1200 micromoles mol-1. The number and the fresh and dry weights of pods also increased with increasing CO2 concentration. However, the yield of immature pods was not significantly influenced by increased CO2. Total seed yield increased 33% from ambient to 800 micromoles mol-1 CO2, and 4% from 800 to 1200 micromoles mol-1 CO2. Harvest index increased with increasing CO2. Branch length increased while specific leaf area decreased linearly as CO2 increased from ambient to 1200 micromoles mol-1. Net photosynthetic rate was highest among plants grown at 800 micromoles mol-1. Stomatal conductance decreased with increased CO2. Carboxylation efficiency was similar among plants grown at 400 and 800 micromoles mol-1 and decreased at 1200 micromoles mol-1 CO2. These results suggest that CO2 enrichment from 400 to 800 micromoles mol-1 had positive effects on peanut growth and yield, but above 800 micromoles mol-1 enrichment seed yield increased only marginally.
pubmed: 11725790 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11725790
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Physical-Chemical treatment of wastes: a way to close turnover of elements in LSS

2000

Yu A Kudenko,I.V Gribovskaya,I.G Zolotukhin

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

“Man–plants–physical–chemical unit” system designed for space stations or terrestrial ecohabitats to close steady-state mineral, water and gas exchange is proposed. The physical–chemical unit is to mineralize all inedible plant wastes and physiological human wastes (feces, urine, gray water) by electromagnetically activated hydrogen peroxide in an oxidation reactor. The final product is a mineralized solution containing all elements balanced for plants’ requirements. The solution has been successfully used in experiments to grow wheat, beans and radish. The solution was reusable: the evaporated moisture was replenished by the phytotron condensate. Sodium salination of plants was precluded by evaporating reactor-mineralized urine to sodium saturation concentration to crystallize out NaCl which can be used as food for the crew. The remaining mineralized product was brought back for nutrition of plants. The gas composition of the reactor comprises O2, N2, CO2, NH3, H2. At the reactor’s output hydrogen and oxygen were catalyzed into water, NH3 was converted in a water trap into NH4 and used for nutrition of plants. A special accessory at the reactor’s output may produce hydrogen peroxide from intrasystem water and gas which makes possible to close gas loops between LSS components.
doi: 10.1016/S0094-5765(00)00007-2 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576500000072
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Development of a plant growth unit for growing plants over a long-term life cycle under microgravity conditions

2000

Y. Kitaya,A. Tani,E. Goto,T. Saito,H. Takahashi

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

To study the effect of the space environment on plant growth including the reproductive growth and genetic aberration for a long-term plant life cycle, we have initiated development of a new type of facility for growing plants under microgravity conditions. The facility is constructed with subsystems for controlling environmental elements. In this paper, the concept of the facility design is outlined. Subsystems controlling air temperature, humidity, CO2 concentration, light and air circulation around plants and delivering recycled water and nutrients to roots are the major concerns. Plant experiments for developing the facility and future plant experiments with the completed facility are also overviewed. We intend to install this facility in the Japan Experiment Facility (JEM) boarded on the International Space Station.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00572-4 pubmed: 11543163 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117799005724
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Lunar-Mars life support test project: Phasee III final report

2000

M. Edeen

publication: unknown

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Preliminary estimates of the possibilities for developing a deployable greenhouse for a planetary surface (Mars)

2000

VYe Rygalov, R.A. Bucklin, P.A. Fowler, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Mars Greenhouses: Concepts and Challenges. Proceedings from a 1999 Workshop

Abstract

Two of the main conditions for plant growth and development on the Martian surface are irradiation (optimal range from 80 W/sq m to 180 W/sq m of photosynthetically active radiation) and temperature (optimal range from 20 C to 27 C). The only known natural source of energy on Mars is sunlight, with a general intensity of 589 +/- 142 W/sq m (Martian Solar Constant). Comparisons of plant growth requirements with conditions on the Martian surface are presented in Table 1, while some basic considerations for implementing plant growth in a Martian DG are presented in Table 2. The general scenario and approximate schedule of startup and development of operations in DG are shown in Table 3.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20050182979
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Identification of appropriate level of automation for biomass production systems within an Advanced Life Support System

2000

S.Ozaki Kang, K.C.Ting Y., A.J. Both

publication: 2000 ASAE Annual International Meeting

Abstract

Identification of appropriate level of automation is necessary in order to reduce crew labor requirement in the Biomass Production System (BPS) of an Advance Life Support System(ALSS) for long-term human space mission. This study has been conducted by modifying an existing object-oriented BPS model developed by the New Jersey NASA Specialized Center Of Research and Training (NJ-NSCORT). The modified model incorporates various types of mechanized equipment, automated machines, and/or robots with updated biomass production data. The model is used to simulate different combinations of crop mix/scheduling, cultural tasks, production space layout/material flow, labor/resource requirement and crew/machine interactions to investigate the effects of mechanization, automation, and robotics systems (MARS) on crew time requirements and other costs estimated in equivalent system mass. This simulation result will lead to the recommendation of level of automation needed for biomass production.
link: https://www.researchwithrutgers.com/en/publications/identification-of-appropriate-level-of-automa...
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Re-examining aeroponics for spaceflight plant growth

2000

J.M. Clawson,A. Hoehn,L.S. Stodieck,P. Todd,R.J. Stoner

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air/mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate media. Aeroponics has contributed to advances in several areas of study including root morphology, nutrient uptake, drought and flood stress, and responses to variations in oxygen and/or carbon dioxide root zone concentrations. The adaptability of the aeroponic process that has benefited researchers makes its application to spaceflight plant growth systems appealing. Greater control of growth parameters permits a greater range of crop performance throttling and the elimination of aggregates or common growth substrates lowers system mass, lessens disease propagation between plants, and can decrease the required crew time for both planting and harvesting. However, because of the use of less reliable types of aeroponic techniques and concerns with open two-phase fluids within the root zone in microgravity, many advanced life support technology researchers opted for nutrient delivery concepts that offered more fluid control, containment and simpler subsystem designs. The resulting systems have been successful for on-orbit plant growth, but have yet to achieve high performance crop production equal to terrestrial standards. Re-examining historical concerns, along with an overview of recent work demonstrating hypogravity aeroponics, shows the promise that aeroponics still holds for spaceflight crop production.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2507 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2507/
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Toward the Development of a “Salad Machine”

2000

Mark Kliss,Gerard Heyenga,Alex Hoehn,Louis Stodieck

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

During the past three decades, both the Russian and American space programs have demonstrated that human presence in space can be sustained for either short or long durations as long as essential life support expendables are regularly resupplied from Earth. In the last decade, increasing attention has been placed on the development of bioregenerative life support systems which minimize resupply requirements in order to sustain long-duration human exploration of the Moon or Mars and eventually human settlement beyond Earth. Bio-regenerative life support systems, however, remain among the most challenging of all the critical elements required for long duration human space missions. In the near term, the in-space cultivation of salad-type vegetables for crew consumption has been proposed as critical first step towards using bioregenerative technologies to effectively reduce the total reliance by crewmembers on the resupply of food.
Recent advances in the development of space flight plant growth facilities, such as the Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (PGBA), have established a sound technical basis upon which the implementation of the ‘Salad Machine’ concept may be achieved. Recent plant growth experiments conducted in space indicate that the fundamental biological processes of photosynthesis and growth appear to be essentially the same in space as on Earth. What is currently lacking in making a compelling argument for the development of a ‘Salad Machine’ is information on whether the nutritional content of space-grown salad vegetables is comparable to those grown on Earth. This paper proposes a low cost, near-term approach which would provide these data. A discussion of the preliminary ground-based studies required for determining if the PGBA can successfully function in a salad crop production mode is provided.

doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2476 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2476/
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High relative humidity increases yield, harvest index, flowering, and gynophore growth of hydroponically grown peanut plants

2000

D.G. Mortley,C.K. Bonsi,P.A. Loretan,W.A. Hill,C.E. Morris

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Growth chamber experiments were conducted to study the physiological and growth response of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) to 50% and 85% relative humidity (RH). The objective was to determine the effects of RH on pod and seed yield, harvest index, and flowering of peanut grown by the nutrient film technique (NFT). 'Georgia Red' peanut plants (14 days old) were planted into growth channels (0.15 x 0.15 x 1.2 m). Plants were spaced 25 cm apart with 15 cm between channels. A modified half-Hoagland solution with an additional 2 mM Ca was used. Solution pH was maintained between 6.4 and 6.7, and electrical conductivity (EC) ranged between 1100 and 1200 microS cm-1. Temperature regimes of 28/22 degrees C were maintained during the light/dark periods (12 hours each) with photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) at canopy level of 500 micromoles-m-2s-1. Foliage and pod fresh and dry weights, total seed yield, harvest index (HI), and seed maturity were greater at high than at low RH. Plants grown at 85% RH had greater total and individual leaflet area and stomatal conductance, flowered 3 days earlier and had a greater number of flowers reaching anthesis. Gynophores grew more rapidly at 85% than at 50% RH.
pubmed: 11725789 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11725789
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Pythium invasion of plant-based life support systems: Biological control and sources

2000

D.G. Jenkins, K.L. Cook, J.A. Garland, K.F. Board

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Invasion of plant-based life support systems by plant pathogens could cause plant disease and disruption of life support capability. Root rot caused by the fungus, Pythium, was observed during tests of prototype plant growth systems containing wheat at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). We conducted experiments to determine if the presence of complex microbial communities in the plant root zone (rhizosphere) resisted invasion by the Pythium species isolated from the wheat root. Rhizosphere inocula of different complexity (as assayed by community-level physiological profile: CLPP) were developed using a dilution/extinction approach, followed by growth in hydroponic rhizosphere. Pythium growth on wheat roots and concomitant decreases in plant growth were inversely related to the complexity of the inocula during 20-day experiments in static hydroponic systems. Pythium was found on the seeds of several different wheat cultivars used in controlled environmental studies, but it is unclear if the seed-borne fungal strain(s) were identical to the pathogenic strain recovered from the KSC studies. Attempts to control pathogens and their effects in hydroponic life support systems should include early inoculation with complex microbial communities, which is consistent with ecological theory.
pubmed: 11543559 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2000/00000007/00000002/art00007
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Calcium localization and tipburn development in lettuce leaves during early enlargement

2000

Daniel J. Barta,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Tissue concentrations of Ca, Mg, and K were determined across immature leaves of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. 'Buttercrunch') at different stages of enlargement using electron microprobe x-ray analysis. The analysis was with a wavelength dispersive spectrometer to permit detection of low concentrations of Ca. Patterns of mineral accumulation in immature leaves that were exposed were compared to patterns of accumulation in leaves that were enclosed within a developing head. The leaves developing without enclosure were free to transpire and developed normally whereas leaves developing with enclosure were restricted in transpiration and developed an injury that was characteristic of Ca deficiency. In the exposed leaves, Ca concentrations increased from an average of 1.0 to 2.1 mg g-1 dry weight (DW) as the leaves enlarged from 5 to 30 mm in length. In the enclosed leaves, Ca concentrations decreased from 1.0 to 0.7 mg g-1 DW as the leaves enlarged from 5 to 30 mm in length. At the tips of these enclosed leaves a larger decrease was found, from 0.9 to 0.3 mg g-1 DW during enlargement. Necrotic injury first became apparent in this tip area when the concentration was approximate to 0.4 mg g-1 DW. Magnesium concentrations across the exposed leaves were similar to concentrations across the enclosed leaves, and did not change with enlargement. Magnesium concentrations averaged 3.5. mg g-1 DW in both enclosed and exposed leaves during enlargement from 5 to 30 mm. In both exposed and enclosed leaves, K concentrations increased during enlargement from 40 to approximate to 60 mg g-1 DW. Potassium concentrations were highest toward the leaf apex and upper margin where injury symptoms occurred, and this may have enhanced injury development. This research documents the critical low levels of Ca (0.2 to 0.4 mg g-1 DW) that can occur in enclosed leaves of plants and which apparently leads to the marginal apex necrosis of developing leaves seen frequently on lettuce and other crops.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.125.3.294 pubmed: 11543566 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theodore-Tibbitts/publication/11802119_Calcium_Localization_...
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Development of an inflatable greenhouse for a modular crop production system

2000

J.M. Clawson

publication: NASA Technical Memorandum

Partial Abstract

Plants offer the greatest opportunity for self-sufficiency and possibly cost reduction, in the form of lower equivalent system mass (ESM), for long duration missions (Drysdale and Hanford 1999). Self-sufficiency is perhaps the greatest advantage of a plant-based bioregenerative system enabling it to handle contingencies for degraded and/or extended missions. Plants have the unique ability to provide for food regeneration and they can also provide redundancy to physicochemical (PC) air and water regeneration. Further, the ...
link: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/10514008.pdf#page=80
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Analysis of the spaceflight effects on growth and development of Super Dwarf wheat grown on the space station Mir

2000

M.A. Levinskikh,V.N. Sychev,T.A. Derendyaeva,O.B. Signalova,F.B. Salisbury,W.F. Campbell,G.E. Bingham,D.L. Bubenheim,G. Jahns

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

The hypothesis being tested is that Super Dwarf wheat, Triticum aestivum L., plants in the Svet Greenhouse onboard the Russian Space Station Mir will complete a life cycle in spaceflight, providing that the environmental conditions necessary for adequate growth on Earth are supplied. Twenty six seeds of wheat were planted in each of 2 rows of 2 root compartments for a total of 104 seeds in Svet. Germination rate at 7 d was 56 and 73% on Mir and 75 and 90% in ground-based controls. Plants were grown throughout the whole cycle of ontogenesis (123 d) with samples gathered at different times to validate the morphological and reproductive stages of the plants. Young plants showed vigorous early seedling growth, with large biomass production, including the formation of 280 floral spikes. Upon return to Earth, comparative analyses showed that the number of tillers and flowers per spikelet were 63.2% and 40% greater, respectively, in Mir-grown plants than in the controls. By contrast, the stem length (52.4%), spike mass (49.2%) and length (23.1%), awn length (75.7%), number of spikelets per spike (42.8%) and number of seeds per spike (100% sterile) from Mir-grown plants were substantially less than the controls. Distribution of moisture and roots throughout the substrate was very good. All florets on Mir-grown spikes ceased development at the same stage of ontogeny. Lack of caryopses formation was attributed to male sterility occurring at different stages of staminal development. Anthers failed to dehisce and pollen grains were smaller and shriveled compared to the controls, suggesting a chronic stress had occurred in the Svet growth chamber. Recent ground-based studies indicated that ethylene, which was measured at 0.3 to 1.8 mg kg-1 in the Mir, almost certainly could have induced male sterility in the wheat plants grown on the Mir.
doi: 10.1016/s0176-1617(00)80168-6 pubmed: 11543345 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161700801686
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Canopy photosynthesis and transpiration in microgravity: Gas exchange measurements aboard MIR

2000

O. Monje, G.E. Bingham, J.G. Carman, W.F. Campbell, F.B. Salisbury, B.K. Eames, V. Sytchev, M.A. Levinskikh, I. Podolsky

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The SVET Greenhouse on-board the Orbital Station Mir was used to measure canopy photosynthesis and transpiration rates for the first time in space. During the Greenhouse IIB experiment on Mir (June-January 1997), carbon and water vapor fluxes from two wheat (cv. Superdwarf) canopies were measured using the US developed Gas Exchange Measurement System (GEMS). Gas analyzers capable of resolving CO2 concentration differences of 5 micromoles mol-1 against a background of 0.9% CO2, are necessary to measure photosynthetic and respiratory rates on Mir. The ability of the GEMS gas analyzers to measure these CO2 concentration differences was determined during extensive ground calibrations. Similarly, the sensitivity of the analyzers to water vapor was sufficient to accurately measure canopy evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration, which accounted for over 90% of the water added to the root zone, was estimated using gas exchange and used to estimate substrate moisture content. This paper presents canopy photosynthesis and transpiration data during the peak vegetative phase of development in microgravity.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00575-x pubmed: 11543166 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311779900575X
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Wire culture for an inflatable Mars greenhouse and other future inflatable space growth chambers

2000

P.D. Sadler

publication: unknown

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Microgravity effects on ater supply and substrate properties in porous matrix root support systems.

2000

G.E Bingham,S.B Jones,D Or,I.G Podolski,M.A Levinskikh,V.N Sytchov,T Ivanova,P Kostov,S Sapunova,I Dandolov,D.B Bubenheim,G Jahns

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

The control of water content and water movement in granular substrate-based plant root systems in microgravity is a complex problem. Improper water and oxygen delivery to plant roots has delayed studies of the effects of microgravity on plant development and the use of plants in physical and mental life support systems.
Our international effort (USA, Russia and Bulgaria) has upgraded the plant growth facilities on the Mir Orbital Station (OS) and used them to study the full life cycle of plants. The Bulgarian–Russian-developed Svet Space Greenhouse (SG) system was upgraded on the Mir OS in 1996. The US developed Gas Exchange Measurement System (GEMS) greatly extends the range of environmental parameters monitored.
The Svet-GEMS complex was used to grow a fully developed wheat crop during 1996. The growth rate and development of these plants compared well with earth grown plants indicating that the root zone water and oxygen stresses that have limited plant development in previous long-duration experiments have been overcome. However, management of the root environment during this experiment involved several significant changes in control settings as the relationship between the water delivery system, water status sensors, and the substrate changed during the growth cycles.

doi: 10.1016/S0094-5765(00)00116-8 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576500001168
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Methodology of biospherics for theoretical sciences and practical use

2000

N.S. Pechurkin, T. Maryasova

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

This article deals with some methodological aspects of biospherics connected with theoretical sciences development and prospective use for practical application. Properties of experimental objects, methods and goals of biospherics as synthesising science have been discussed. The problem of stability of incomplete (natural and artificial) ecosystems has been considered. The concept of the ecosystem health based on effective functioning of different types of ecosystems has been developed.
pubmed: 11543560 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11543560
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Low potassium enhances sodium uptake in red beet under moderate saline conditions

2000

G. V. Subbarao,R. M. Wheeler,G. W. Stutte,L. H. Levine

publication: Journal of plant nutrition

Abstract

Due to the discrepancy in metabolic sodium (Na) requirements between plants and animals, cycling of Na between humans and plants is limited and critical to the proper functioning of bio-regenerative life support systems, being considered for long-term human habitats in space (e.g., Martian bases). This study was conducted to determine the effects of limited potassium (K) on growth, Na uptake, photosynthesis, ionic partitioning, and water relations of red-beet (Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris) under moderate Na-saline conditions. Two cultivars, Klein Bol, and Ruby Queen were grown for 42 days in a growth chamber using a re-circulating nutrient film technique where the supplied K levels were 5.0, 1.25, 0.25, and 0.10 mM in a modified half-strength Hoagland solution salinized with 50 mM NaCl. Reducing K levels from 5.0 to 0.10 mM quadrupled the Na uptake, and lamina Na levels reached -20 g kg-1 dwt. Lamina K levels decreased from -60 g kg-1 dwt at 5.0 mM K to -4.0 g kg-1 dwt at 0.10 mM K. Ruby Queen and Klein Bol responded differently to these changes in Na and K status. Klein Bol showed a linear decline in dry matter production with a decrease in available K, whereas for cv. Ruby Queen, growth was stimulated at 1.25 mM K and relatively insensitive to a further decreases of K down to 0.10 mM. Leaf glycinebetaine levels showed no significant response to the changing K treatments. Leaf relative water content and osmotic potential were significantly higher for both cultivars at low-K treatments. Leaf chlorophyll levels were significantly decreased at low-K treatments, but leaf photosynthetic rates showed no significant difference. No substantial changes were observed in the total cation concentration of plant tissues despite major shifts in the relative Na and K uptake at various K levels. Sodium accounted for 90% of the total cation uptake at the low K levels, and thus Na was likely replacing K in osmotic functions without negatively affecting the plant water status, or growth. Our results also suggest that cv. Ruby Queen can tolerate a much higher Na tissue concentration than cv. Klein Bol before there is any growth reduction. Grant numbers: 12180.
doi: 10.1080/01904160009382114 pubmed: 11594364 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904160009382114
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Plant responses to rarified atmospheres

2000

K.A. Corey, P.A. Fowler, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Mars Greenhouses: Concepts and Challenges. Proceedings from a 1999 Workshop

Abstract

Reduced atmospheric pressures will likely be used to minimize mass and engineering requirements for plant growth habitats used in extraterrestrial applications. This report provides a brief survey of key literature related to responses of plants to atmospheric variables and a broad rationale for designing minimal atmospheres for future plant growth structures on the Martian surface. The literature and recent work suggest that atmospheric pressure limits for normal plant function are likely to be 10 kPa or perhaps slightly lower. At Kennedy Space Center, a chamber with high vacuum capability was used to design and begin construction of a system for testing plant responses to reduced pressure atmospheres. A test rack with lighting provided by 3, high-pressure sodium vapor lamps was built to conduct measurements of short-term plant responses. Initial experiments with lettuce showed that a pressure of 10 kPa resulted in a 6.1-fold increase in the rate of water loss compared to water loss at ambient pressure (101 kPa).
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20050182975
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Controlling greenhouse light to a consistent daily integral

2000

L.D. Albright, A.J. Both, A.J. Chiu

publication: Transactions of the ASAE

Abstract

Lettuce growth data are presented that show the importance of the daily light integral for predictable vegetative growth. Dry mass accumulation is shown to be proportional to the light integral, and a consistent daily light integral is proposed to be central to consistent production. Supplemental lighting control rules are defined and described and a computer implementation is used in conjunction with ten years of hourly weather data to test (by simulation) adequacy of the rules to control supplemental lights and movable shades in greenhouses to achieve a consistent daily integral of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR), mol-m 2 -day 1 , on days of either insufficient or excess solar irradiation, which are most days. The rules require neither historical data bases of weather characteristics nor daily weather forecasts. Control decisions are suggested to be made hourly, based on the current days accumulating solar PAR integral inside the greenhouse. The model is sensitive to time-of-day electricity rates, changing seasons, weather, greenhouse and component characteristics, and greenhouse location (latitude and longitude). The rules contain parameters with values suggested for northeastern United States solar conditions but which may be adjusted for local solar climates that are significantly different.
doi: 10.13031/2013.2721 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=2721
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Feasibility of substituting sodium for potassium in crop plants for advanced life support systems

2000

G.V. Subbarao, R.M. Wheeler, G.W. Stutte

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Recycling of nutrients, air, and water is an integral feature of life support systems designed for long-term space missions. Plants can play a major role in supplying the basic life support requirements, which include providing the crew's food, clean water, and air, and recycling their wastes. The nutrient flux through the plant and human systems needs to be matched in order for nutrients to recycle between humans and plants without an excessive buildup in any one section of the system. Sodium, which is essential at the macronutrient level for human metabolism, has only been shown to be a micronutrient for some plants, with only very limited uptake in most plants. Thus, when Na is added from the outside to meet the human demand in these closed life support systems it will accumulate someplace in the overall system. In simple systems such as these, without a complete biogeological cycle, the buildup of Na could occur in the nutrient solution of the plant system. Various concepts related to the substitution of sodium for potassium in crop plants are currently being investigated by NASA. Results to date suggest that Na concentrations up to 100 g kg-1 dry weight may be achievable in the edible portions of Na-tolerant crops (e.g., red beet and chard). A flow path for nutrient solution high in Na wastes has been suggested for optimizing Na and nitrogen incorporation and utilization from such solutions. Options for further improvements include selecting plant genotypes tolerant to high salinity, which are efficient in Na uptake. This should also be combined with environmental manipulations to maximize Na uptake by crop plants.
pubmed: 11676437 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2000/00000007/00000003/art00001
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Can CO2 be used as a pressurizing gas for Mars greenhouses?

2000

R.M. Wheeler

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

The possibility of using plants to provide oxygen (O2) and food during space travel has been discussed and studied for nearly 50 years. The concept is based on the process of photosynthesis, which uses CO2 as a substrate and is driven by light (photosynthetically active radiation - PAR0 in the 400 to 700 nm waveband. In addition to the CO2 and light, the plants would require a controlled environment with acceptable temperatures (approx. 10 to 35 C) and humidities (approx. 40 to 85 %), adequate supplies of water and mineral nutrients, and minimum levels of oxygen to sustain respiration.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20050182976
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[citation] Preface: Flight equipment design and flight experiment results in CELSS research

2000

R.M. Wheeler, T.W. Tibbitts

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Response of soybean rhizosphere communities to human hygiene water addition as determined by community level physiological profiling (CLPP) and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP) analysis

2000

L. Kerkhof, M. Santoro, J. Garland

publication: FEMS microbiology letters

Abstract

In this report, we describe an experiment conducted at Kennedy Space Center in the biomass production chamber (BPC) using soybean plants for purification and processing of human hygiene water. Specifically, we tested whether it was possible to detect changes in the root-associated bacterial assemblage of the plants and ultimately to identify the specific microorganism(s) which differed when plants were exposed to hygiene water and other hydroponic media. Plants were grown in hydroponics media corresponding to four different treatments: control (Hoagland's solution), artificial gray water (Hoagland's+surfactant), filtered gray water collected from human subjects on site, and unfiltered gray water. Differences in rhizosphere microbial populations in all experimental treatments were observed when compared to the control treatment using both community level physiological profiles (BIOLOG) and molecular fingerprinting of 16S rRNA genes by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (TRFLP). Furthermore, screening of a clonal library of 16S rRNA genes by TRFLP yielded nearly full length SSU genes associated with the various treatments. Most 16S rRNA genes were affiliated with the Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Variovorax, Burkholderia, Bordetella and Isosphaera groups. This molecular approach demonstrated the ability to rapidly detect and identify microorganisms unique to experimental treatments and provides a means to fingerprint microbial communities in the biosystems being developed at NASA for optimizing advanced life support operations.
doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2000.tb08997.x pubmed: 10689173 link: https://academic.oup.com/femsle/article-abstract/184/1/95/571013
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Ozonation and alkaline-peroxide pretreatment of wheat straw for Cryptococcus curvatus fermentation

2000

C.J. Greenwalt, J. Hunter, S. Lin, S. McKenzie, A. Denver

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Crop residues in an Advanced Life Support System (ALS) contain many valuable components that could be recovered and used. Wheat is 60% inedible, with approximately 90% of the total sugars in the residue cellulose and hemicellulose. To release these sugars requires pretreatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis. CRYPTOCOCCUS CURVATUS, an oleaginous yeast, uses the sugars in cellulose and hemicellulose for growth and production of storage triglycerides. In this investigation, alkaline-peroxide and ozonation pretreatment methods were compared for their efficiency to release glucose and xylose to be used in the cultivation of C. curvatus. Leaching the biomass with water at 65 °C for 4 h prior to pretreatment facilitated saccharification. Alkaline-peroxide and ozone pretreatment were almost 100% and 80% saccharification efficient, respectively. The sugars derived from the hydrolysis of alkaline- peroxide-treated wheat straw supported the growth of C. curvatus and the production of edible single-cell oil.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/2000/00000007/00000003/art00003
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Recent advances in technologies required for a “Salad Machine”

2000

M. Kliss,A.G. Heyenga,A. Hoehn,L.S. Stodieck

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Future long duration, manned space flight missions will require life support systems that minimize resupply requirements and ultimately approach self-sufficiency in space. Bioregenerative life support systems are a promising approach, but they are far from mature. Early in the development of the NASA Controlled Ecological Life Support System Program, the idea of onboard cultivation of salad-type vegetables for crew consumption was proposed as a first step away from the total reliance on resupply for food in space. Since that time, significant advances in space-based plant growth hardware have occurred, and considerable flight experience has been gained. This paper revisits the "Salad Machine" concept and describes recent developments in subsystem technologies for both plant root and shoot environments that are directly relevant to the development of such a facility.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00570-0 pubmed: 11543161 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117799005700
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A hierarchical approach to the sustainable management of controlled ecological life support systems: Part 2, System realization and analysis

2000

C.W. Pawlowski, D.M. Auslander

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

The second in a series of two articles exploring the sustainable management of a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS), this article examines the feasibility of the approach outlined in Part 1 using a simple, abstract CELSS representation comprising buffers and pumps. We develop a two-level management hierarchy in which the top level imposes constraints on the operation of the lower level. The compartments can operate freely within these constraints. This freedom can be used to enhance system performance and robustness. Additionally, the higher level does not require detailed subsystem representations. Our approach to sustainable management of CELSS allows for the active distribution of system mass, taking into account component constraints and system dynamics.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2000/00000007/00000002/art00003
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Wheat responses to differences in water and nutritional status between zeoponic and hydroponic growth systems

2000

Susan L. Steinberg,Douglas W. Ming,Keith E. Henderson,Chris Carrier,John E. Gruener,Dan J. Barta,Don L. Henninger

publication: Agronomy journal

Abstract

Hydroponic culture has traditionally been used for controlled environment life support systems (CELSS) because the optimal environment for roots supports high growth rates. Recent developments in zeoponic substrate and microporous tube irrigation (ZPT) also offer high control of the root environment. This study compared the effect of differences in water and nutrient status of ZPT or hydroponic culture on growth and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. USU-Apogee). In a side-by-side test in a controlled environment, wheat was grown in ZPT and recirculating hydroponics to maturity. Water use by plants grown in both culture systems peaked at 15 to 20 L m-2 d-1 up to Day 40, after which it declined more rapidly for plants grown in ZPT culture due to earlier senescence of leaves. No consistent differences in water status were noted between plants grown in the two culture systems. Although yield was similar, harvest index was 28% lower for plants grown in ZPT than in hydroponic culture. Sterile green tillers made up 12 and 0% of the biomass of plants grown in ZPT and hydroponic culture, respectively. Differences in biomass partitioning were attributed primarily to NH4-N nutrition of plants grown in ZPT compared with NO3-N in hydroponic nutrient solution. It is probable that NH4-N-induced Ca deficiency produced excess tillering and lower harvest index for plants grown in ZPT culture. These results suggest that further refinements in zeoponic substrate would make ZPT culture a viable alternative for achieving high productivity in a CELSS.
doi: 10.2134/agronj2000.922353x pubmed: 11543523 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj2000.922353x
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Atmosphere Composition Control of Spaceflight Plant Growth Growth Chambers.

2000

Alex Hoehn,Louis S. Stodieck,James Clawson,Erin Robinson,Hans Seelig,A. Gerard Heyenga,Mark H. Kliss

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Spaceflight plant growth chambers require an atmosphere control system to maintain adequate levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen, as well as to limit trace gas components, for optimum or reproducible scientific performance. Recent atmosphere control anomalies of a spaceflight plant chamber, resulting in unstable CO2 control, have been analyzed. An activated carbon filter, designed to absorb trace gas contaminants, has proven detrimental to the atmosphere control system due to its large buffer capacity for CO2. The latest plant chamber redesign addresses the control anomalies and introduces a new approach to atmosphere control (low leakage rate chamber, regenerative control of CO2, O2, and ethylene).
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2232 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2232/
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Systems analysis of life support for long-duration missions

2000

Alan E. Drysdale,Sabrina Maxwell,Michael K. Ewert,Anthony J. Hanford

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Work defining advanced life support (ALS) technologies and evaluating their applicability to various long-duration missions has continued. Time-dependent and time-invariant costs have been estimated for a variety of life support technology options, including International Space Station (ISS) environmental control and life support systems (ECLSS) technologies and improved options under development by the ALS Project. These advanced options include physicochemical (PC) and bioregenerative (BIO) technologies, and may in the future include in-situ-resource utilization (ISRU) in an attempt to reduce both logistics costs and dependence on supply from Earth.
PC and bioregenerative technologies both provide possibilities for reducing mission equivalent system mass (ESM). PC technologies are most advantageous for missions of up to several years in length, while bioregenerative options are most appropriate for longer missions. ISRU can be synergistic with both PC and bioregenerative options. The break even point in a particular trade study depends on the specific technologies considered and assumptions used. However, as technology development continues and for different mission scenarios, the break-even points will change.

doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2394 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2394/
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Microgravity root zone hydration systems

2000

Alex Hoehn,Paul Scovazzo,Louis S. Stodieck,James Clawson,William Kalinowski,Alexi Rakow,David Simmons,A. Gerard Heyenga,Mark H. Kliss

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Accurate root zone moisture control in microgravity plant growth systems is problematic. With gravity, excess water drains along a vertical gradient, and water recovery is easily accomplished. In microgravity, the distribution of water is less predictable and can easily lead to flooding, as well as anoxia. Microgravity water delivery systems range from solidified agar, water-saturated foams, soils and hydroponics soil surrogates including matrix-free porous tube delivery systems. Surface tension and wetting along the root substrate provides the means for adequate and uniform water distribution. Reliable active soil moisture sensors for an automated microgravity water delivery system currently do not exist. Surrogate parameters such as water delivery pressure have been less successful.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2510 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2510/
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Top-level crop models for Advanced Life Support analysis

2000

Harry Jones,James Cavazzoni

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

We have developed top-level crop models for analysis of Advanced Life Support (ALS) systems that use plants to grow food. The crops modeled are candidates for ALS use: bean (dry), lettuce, peanut, potato (white), rice, soybean, sweet potato, tomato, and wheat. The crop models are modified versions of the energy cascade crop growth model originally developed for wheat by Volk, Bugbee, and Wheeler. The models now simulate the effects of temperature, carbon dioxide level, planting density, and relative humidity on canopy gas exchange, in addition to the effects of light level and photoperiod included in the original model. The energy cascade model has also been extended to predict the times of canopy closure, grain setting (senescence), and maturity (harvest) as functions of the environmental conditions. The definition of one model parameter, the carbon use efficiency (net photosynthesis/gross photosynthesis), was revised on a twenty-four hour basis, which gives a more intuitively correct model behavior. In addition, the dependence of canopy quantum yield (moles of carbon/moles of photosynthetic photon flux) on temperature, carbon dioxide, and light level is incorporated into the modified models. The model parameters were calibrated using canopy gas exchange data for wheat, soybean, white potato, and lettuce.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2261 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2261/
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Hybrid solar and xenon-metal halide lighting for lunar and Martian bioregenerative life support

2000

Joel L. Cuello,Yu Yang,Eiichi Ono,Kenneth A. Jordan,Takashi Nakamura

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The Hybrid Solar and Artificial Lighting (HYSAL) system used in this study consisted of a mirror-based Optical Waveguide (OW) Solar Lighting System as the solar component and four 60-W xenon-metal halide illuminators as the artificial-light component. A reference (or control) system consisted of a conventional 250-W high pressure sodium (HPS) lamp. Solar irradiance was harnessed whenever available for the HYSAL treatment. During the course of the 30-day growth period for lettuce (Lactuca sativa), the HYSAL's solar PPF varied with the natural fluctuations of terrestrial solar irradiance, which changed dramatically within each day and between days. When averaged over the entire growth period, the average instantaneous solar PPF for the HYSAL treatment turned out to be 322 μmol m−2 s−1 for an average daily photoperiod of only 3.86 hours owing to numerous cloudy days. Over the whole growth period, the xenon-metal halide lamps provided an average instantaneous PPF of 30 μmol m−2 s−1 continuously for 24 hours each day. The resulting total moles of photons received by the HYSAL treatment for 30 days were 199 moles/m2, being 60.6 % solar and 39.4 % artificial. The HPS reference was made to receive equal daily moles of photons as the HYSAL treatment throughout the growth period, resulting in both HPS reference and HYSAL treatment having the same total number of moles (199 moles/m2) at the end of the growth period. Over the entire growth period, the HPS reference had an average instantaneous PPF of 194 μmol m−2 s−1 and an average daily photoperiod of 9.5 hours. The resulting average total dry weight per plant for the HYSAL treatment of 1.37 ± 0.38 g exceeded significantly by 76% (α = 0.05) that for the HPS reference of only 0.78 ± 0.17 g. This significant discrepancy could be explained physiologically by the HPS reference having both significantly longer dark period and higher light compensation point (LCP) than the HYSAL treatment. Further experiment showed that it was indeed the composite lighting profile of the HYSAL treatment, not the light-quality factor, that effected the biomass discrepancy.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2426 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2426/
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Supplemental terrestrial solar lighting for an experimental subterranean biomass production chamber

2000

Joel L. Cuello,Darren Jack,Eiichi Ono,Takashi Nakamura

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The long-term supplemental terrestrial solar lighting made available to the Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) located in the Subterranean Plant Growth Facility (SPGF) at The University of Arizona was determined for two cases where two types of Solar Irradiance Collection, Transmission and Distribution System (SICTDS) were used for the facility. Databases for hourly solar irradiance incident upon Tucson, AZ compiled over a 12-year period from 1987 through 1998 were used to calculate the projected average instantaneous PPF within the BPC per hour and per day throughout the year. The results showed that replacing the available solar irradiance within the BPC as delivered by the Himawari SICTDS in June would require either 97.7 W m−2 of HPS lighting or 185.9 W m−2 of CWF lighting supplied continuously for 450 hrs. In energy terms, these would be equivalent to 44.0 kW-hr m−2 for the HPS lamp and 83.7 kW-hr m−2 for the CWF lamp. For a whole year, the equivalent energy expenditures would be 0.4 MW-hr m−2 for the HPS lamp and 0.7 MW-hr m−2 for the CWF lamp. Replacing the available solar irradiance within the BPC as delivered by the OW SICTDS in June would require either 229.9 W m−2 of HPS lighting or 437.4 W m−2 of CWF lighting supplied continuously for 450 hrs. In energy terms, these would be equivalent to 103.5 kW-hr m−2 for the HPS lamp and 196.8 kW-hr m−2 for the CWF lamp. For a whole year, the equivalent energy expenditures would be 0.9 MW-hr m−2 for the HPS lamp and 1.7 MW-hr m−2 for the CWF lamp. Meanwhile, a plant lighting regime in the BPC, consisting of 100 or 200 μmol m−2 s−1 of PPF at 16 hours of photoperiod per day and operated for a whole year, could be supplemented with available solar irradiance on average by 54.3% or 48.9%, respectively, when using the Himawari SICTDS. Also, a plant lighting regime in the BPC, consisting of 200 or 400 mmol m−2 s−1 of PPF at 16 hours of photoperiod per day and operated for a whole year, could be supplemented with available solar irradiance on average by 57.8% or 34.1%, respectively, when using the OW SICTDS.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2428 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2428/
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Measurement of Gas Exchange Characteristics of Developing Wheat in the Biomass Production System

2000

Gary W. Stutte,Oscar Monje,Greg D. Goins,David K. Chapman

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

The PESTO (Photosynthesis Experiment and System Testing and Operation) spaceflight experiment is designed to directly measure gas exchange of developing stands of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on the International Space Station (ISS). Gas exchange measurements will characterize photosynthesis and transpiration in microgravity at different stages of development. The Biomass Production System (BPS), a double middeck-sized plant growth will be the plant growth hardware used to support this experiment on-board ISS. This report presents results from a 10-day functional test of PESTO protocols in the BPS. Wheat canopy CO2 assimilation rate for 14-24 day-old plants grown in the BPS chambers was 6-7 μmol m-2 s-1 during this test. Plant responses to CO2 and photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) response curves were obtained at different stages of development by altering CO2 and light conditions. PPF response curves were linear (r2=0.99) over the range evaluated, and the estimated light compensation point was 103 μmol m-2 s-1. The CO2 compensation point was between 95 and 125 μmol mol-1. Transpiration rates of approximately 3.8 L m-2 day-1 were estimated for 20-day-old plants from water additions to the plant root zone.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2292 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2292/
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Growth of sweetpotato in lunar and Mars simulants

2000

D. G. Mortley,H. A. Aglan,C. K. Bonsi,W. A. Hill

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam] cv ’TU-82-155’ was grown in Lunar or Mars simulants to evaluate growth and yield responses. Stem cuttings (15 cm long) were grown in Lunar (LS) or Mars (MS) simulants, or Turface (TF3; three cuttings) or (TF4; 4 cuttings). Plants were supplied with nutrient solutions through a microporous tube buried in the media. Plants were harvested 120 days after planting. The number of storage roots per unit area was greater among plants grown in MS and similar for plants grown in LS, TF3, and TF4. Storage root fresh and dry mass and percent dry mass were similar among media treatments. Foliage fresh mass and harvest index were also similar regardless of media used, while foliage dry mass was lowest among plants grown in LS. Nutrient solution pH remained close to the set point of 6.0 for the first 60 days but declined thereafter while EC was most stable among plants grown in MS. Total leaf area and number were greatest for plants in TF3 while stomatal conductance was greatest for plants in TF4. These results indicate that sweetpotato can be successfully grown in both Lunar and Mars simulants and would probably grow well in true planetary substrates.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2289 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2289/
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A hierarchical approach to the sustainable management of controlled ecological life support systems: Part 1, An ecological and engineering synthesis

2000

C.W. Pawlowski, D.M. Auslander

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

In this article we present, in an expository manner, an approach to the sustainable management of a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) based on concepts from both engineering and ecology. Our perspective leads us to express the sustainability of CELSS in terms of constraints imposed on its subsystems. These constraints are of two types: static and operational. Static constraints capture the basic sustainability requirements of the individual subsystem components—they represent the absolute limits (bounds) on the operating range of these subsystems. Operational constraints, on the other hand, represent a response to global changes in the availability of system resources. They are imposed as the system evolves dynamically to avert shortages or surpluses in resources in various subsystems. As well as having implications on design, our perspective, termed the constraint perspective, leads naturally to a management hierarchy. The second article (this issue) in this series will explore the feasibility of this approach and demonstrate some of its consequences based on a simple CELSS model.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/2000/00000007/00000002/art00002
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Biological life support within ESA

2000

Ch. Lasseur,D. Schmitt

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

For the last 10 years, ESA has initiated Life Support activities to prepare long-term manned missions. Although a large part of these activities were based on physico-chemical technologies, biological processes were considered as well. A few projects were initiated: air contaminants removal (e.g. BAF) up to the complete and complex approach of artificial ecosystems (e.g. MELISSA). In order to make a complete survey of the existing developments, to evaluate their advantages and weaknesses, to identify the needs of future projects, as well as to understand the interest of industry, an Advanced Life Support Workshop has been organised in April 1999 by ESA. This paper reviews the existing developments and presents the recommendations of the workshop. A specific part is devoted to the projects in collaboration with the ESA Life Sciences community and the results of the 1999 announcement of opportunity, which included Biological life Support.
doi: 10.4271/2000-01-2338 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2000-01-2338/
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Bioregenerative life support and nutritional implications for planetary exploration

2000

R.M. Wheeler

publication: unknown

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Silica deposition on the leaves of Mir- and Earth-grown Super Dwarf wheat. Life Sup. Biosphere Sci.7:263-272.

2000

W.F. Campbell, D.L. Bubenheim, F.S. Salisbury, W.R.McManus G.E.Bingham, H.D. Biesinger, D.T. Strickland, M. Levinskikh, V.N. Sytchev, I. Podolsky, I. Ivanaov, L. Chernova, G. Jahns

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) microanalysis were used to investigate the nature of crystals deposited on leaves of Mir- and Earth-grown Super Dwarf wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants. Leaves from these plants exhibited dense and uniformly distributed crystals on leaf abaxial surfaces when viewed by SEM. Young leaves showed that crystals initially accumulated around the stomata on the adaxial surface, but became more dense and uniformly distributed as the leaves aged. EDX microanalyses of the Balkanine (a nutrient charged clinoptilolite zeolite) medium in which the wheat plants were grown showed an elemental pattern similar to that observed on the wheat leaves. The absence of N and P in the Balkanine suggests that they were completely utilized by the plants. Only Si and O were evident in the drying agent, Sorb-it-Silica™, and perhaps could have accounted for some of the Si observed on the plant tissue.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/2000/00000007/00000003/art00005
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A multiple chamber, semicontinuous, crop carbon dioxide exchange system: Design, calibration and data interpretation

2000

M.W. van Iersel,B. Bugbee

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Long-term, whole crop CO2 exchange measurements can be used to study factors affecting crop growth. These factors include daily carbon gain, cumulative carbon gain, and carbon use efficiency, which cannot be determined from short-term measurements. We describe a system that measures semicontinuously crop CO2 exchange in 10 chambers over a period of weeks or months. Exchange of CO2 in every chamber can be measured at 5 min intervals. The system was designed to be placed inside a growth chamber, with additional environmental control provided by the individual gas exchange chambers. The system was calibrated by generating CO2 from NaHCO3 inside the chambers, which indicated that accuracy of the measurements was good (102% and 98% recovery for two separate photosynthesis systems). Since the systems measure net photosynthesis (P-net, positive) and dark respiration(R-dark, negative), the data can be used to estimate gross photosynthesis, daily carbon gain, cumulative carbon gain, and carbon use efficiency. Continuous whole-crop measurements are a valuable tool that complements leaf photosynthesis measurements. Multiple chambers allow for replication and comparison among several environmental or cultural treatments that may affect crop growth. Example data from a 2 week study with petunia (Petunia x hybrida Hort. Vilm.-Andr.) are presented to illustrate some of the capabilities of this system.
pubmed: 11762389 link: https://hortamericas.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/A-Multiple-Chamber-Semicontinuous-Crop-Carbon...
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Biomass production system (BPS) plant growth unit

2000

R.C. Morrow,T.M. Crabb

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The Biomass Production System (BPS) was developed under the Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) program to meet science, biotechnology and commercial plant growth needs in the Space Station era. The BPS is equivalent in size to a double middeck locker, but uses its own custom enclosure with a slide out structure to which internal components mount. The BPS contains four internal growth chambers, each with a growing volume of more than 4 liters. Each of the growth chambers has active nutrient delivery, and independent control of temperature, humidity, lighting, and CO2 set-points. Temperature control is achieved using a thermoelectric heat exchanger system. Humidity control is achieved using a heat exchanger with a porous interface which can both humidify and dehumidify. The control software utilizes fuzzy logic for nonlinear, coupled temperature and humidity control. The fluorescent lighting system can be dimmed to provide a range of light levels. CO2 levels are controlled by injecting pure CO2 to the system based on input from an infrared gas analyzer. The unit currently does not scrub CO2, but has been designed to accept scrubber cartridges. In addition to providing environmental control, a number of features are included to facilitate science. The BPS chambers are sealed to allow CO2 and water vapor exchange measurements. The plant chambers can be removed to allow manipulation or sampling of specimens, and each chamber has gas/fluid sample ports. A video camera is provided for each chamber, and frame-grabs and complete environmental data for all science and hardware system sensors are stored on an internal hard drive. Data files can also be transferred to 3.5-inch disks using the front panel disk drive.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00573-6 pubmed: 11543164 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117799005736
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Can incineration technology convert CELSS wastes to resources for crop production? A working hypothesis and some preliminary findings

2000

K. Wignarajah, S. Pisharody, J.W. Fisher

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Considerable evidence exists to support the hypothesis that human-generated wastes can be utilized as resources in crop production. In the waste mix from a Closed Ecological Life Support System (CELSS), the elemental resources are found mainly in the solid fraction. In order to make these resources available for crop growth, it is necessary to convert the solid wastes to either an aqueous or a gaseous phase. Incineration is one method for processing solid wastes to produce a gaseous fraction and a small solid fraction of ash. Evidence from literature provides a compelling case for a working hypothesis that plants can utilize the gases of incineration. Although uptake and utilization of inorganic elements in the aqueous phase is well established, the uptake and utilization of inorganic elements in the gaseous phase, with the exception of CO2 and O2, is not fully understood. This paper attempts to (a) summarize existing literature on uptake/metabolism of inorganic elements in the gaseous fraction, with the exception of CO2 and O2 and (b) develop a working hypothesis to predict the use of incineration flue gases by plants. Preliminary experimental findings on effects of carbon monoxide, a component of the flue gas, are also presented.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(99)01072-8 pubmed: 11543171 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117799010728
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Candidate crop evaluation for Advanced Life Support

2001

R.M. Wheeler, N.C. Yorio, G.D. Goins, G.W. Stutte, N.A. Cranston, L.M. Ruffe

publication: unknown

Abstract

Numerous crops have been studied for advanced life support (ALS), with crop selections based on their nutritional traits, productivity, and horticultural and processing requirements (Tibbitts and Alford, 1982).Studies of ALS crops typically are carried out in controlled environments using electric lighting, some form of hydroponic culture, and elevated CO2 concentrations (to accelerate growth). In previous studies withpotato, soybean, and radish, we have noted that CO2 concentrations near 400 ppm are suboptimal for total biomass yields, while 1000-1500 ppm appears optimal. But depending on the crop, elevating CO2 beyond 1500 ppm can result in decreased growth and seed yields, and increased water use (Wheeler et al., 1993,1999; Mackowiak and Wheeler, 1996; Grotenhuis and Bubgee, 1997). We have initiated similar series of tests to study CO2 response trends in two cultivars of bean. Testing in our laboratory has also shown thatmany crops perform well in hydroponic culture, including subterranean crops like potato (Wheeler et al.,1990), but when the same nutrient solution is used for successive plantings, potatoes can become stunted andprematurely induced to tuberize. We speculate this might be due to a build-up of tuber-promoting compounds in the solution (Wheeler et al., 1995). Depending on the horticultural approach, this factor maybe useful for early tuber set, but it might be have to be controlled to sustain predictable yields.
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gary-Stutte/publication/266211955_CANDIDATE_CROP_EVALUATION_...
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Electrolytic removal of nitrate from crop residues

2001

G. Colon, J.C. Sager

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) resource recovery system, which is a waste-processing system,uses aerobic and anaerobic bioreactors to recover plants nutrients and secondary foods from the inedible biomass. Crop residues contain a significant amount of nitrate. There are actually two major problems concerning nitrate: 1) both CELSS biomass production and resource recovery consume large quantities of nitric acid, and 2) nitrate causes a variety of problems in both aerobic and anaerobic bioreactors. The nitrate anion causes several problems in the resource recovery system in such a way that removal prior to the process is highly desirable. The technique proposed to remove nitrate from potato inedible biomass leachate and to satisfy the nitric acid demand was a four-compartment electrolytic cell. In order to establish the electrolytic cell performance variables, experiments were carried out using potato crop residue aqueous leachate as the diluate solution. The variables studied were the potato biomass leachate composition and electrical properties, preparation of compartment solutions to be compatible with the electrolytic system, limiting current density, nutrients removal rates as a function of current density, fluid hydrodynamic conditions, applied voltage, and process operating time during batch recirculation operation. Results indicated that the limiting current density (maximum operating current density) was directly proportional to the solution electrical conductivity an a power function of the linear fluid velocity in the range between 0.083 and 0.403 m/s. During the electrolytic cell once-through operation, the nitrate, potassium, and other nutrient removal rates were proportional to the current density and were inversely proportional to fluid velocity. The removal of monovalent ions was found to be higher than divalent ones. Under batch recirculation operation at constant applied voltage of 4.5 and 8.5 V, it was found that the nutrient removal rates were independent of applied voltage, but were proportional to the ions concentration and operating time.
pubmed: 11676458 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/2001/00000007/00000004/art00003
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Lighting technology development for bioregenerative components of the Advanced Life Support Project

2001

J.C. Sager, R.M. Wheeler, G. Goins, S. Young

publication: unknown

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Beneficial effects of humic acid on micronutrient availability to wheat

2001

C. L. Mackowiak,P. R. Grossl,B. G. Bugbee

publication: Soil Science Society of America journal. Soil Science Society of America

Abstract

Humic acid (HA) is a relatively stable product of organic matter decomposition and thus accumulates in environmental systems. Humic acid might benefit plant growth by chelating unavailable nutrients and buffering pH. We examined the effect of HA on growth and micronutrient uptake in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown hydroponically. Four root-zone treatments were compared: (i) 25 micromoles synthetic chelate N-(4-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediaminetriacetic acid (C10H18N2O7) (HEDTA at 0.25 mM C); (ii) 25 micromoles synthetic chelate with 4-morpholineethanesulfonic acid (C6H13N4S) (MES at 5 mM C) pH buffer; (iii) HA at 1 mM C without synthetic chelate or buffer; and (iv) no synthetic chelate or buffer. Ample inorganic Fe (35 micromoles Fe3+) was supplied in all treatments. There was no statistically significant difference in total biomass or seed yield among treatments, but HA was effective at ameliorating the leaf interveinal chlorosis that occurred during early growth of the nonchelated treatment. Leaf-tissue Cu and Zn concentrations were lower in the HEDTA treatment relative to no chelate (NC), indicating HEDTA strongly complexed these nutrients, thus reducing their free ion activities and hence, bioavailability. Humic acid did not complex Zn as strongly and chemical equilibrium modeling supported these results. Titration tests indicated that HA was not an effective pH buffer at 1 mM C, and higher levels resulted in HA-Ca and HA-Mg flocculation in the nutrient solution.
doi: 10.2136/sssaj2001.1744 pubmed: 11885604 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/sssaj2001.1744
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Response of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L) to increasing levels of blue light

2001

D.G. Mortley, J.H. Hill, C.K. Bonsi, W.A. Hill, C.E. Morris

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Growth chamber experiments were conducted to determine the effect of varying levels of blue photons on branch growth, pod and seed yield of peanut. Seeds of ‘Georgia Red’ peanut cultivar were grown in 10-liter plastic pots containing a vermiculite/sand/soil media (1:1:1 v/v) under 6%, 11%, 16%, 21% and 26% blue light (320–496 nm) supplied by high intensity discharge high pressure sodium (HPS) and metal halide (MH) lamps at equal photosynthetic photon flux (PPF; 1100 μmol m−2s−1). Neither total foliage nor pod fresh and dry mass were significantly affected by increasing blue light fraction. The length of main stem (plant height) declined linearly in response to increasing blue light fraction. Likewise, both the number and dry mass of mature pods decreased linearly as the percentage of blue light increased. The number of mature seeds declined linearly with increased blue light, while the decrease in seed dry mass was not significant. The dry mass of immature seeds was increased with blue light fraction up to 16%, but decline thereafter. Harvest index declined linearly as blue light fraction increased.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2275 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2275/
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Mars greenhouses: A step toward bioregenerative life support systems

2001

R.M. Wheeler, V. Ye Rygalov , P.A. Fowler, K.A. Corey, C.P. Guidi, J.C. Sager

publication: Advanced …

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Utilization of recovered inorganic nutrients from composted fresh or oven-dried inedible plant biomass for supporting growth of wheat in a BLSS. Soc. Automotive Eng

2001

N.C. Yorio, J.E. Judkins, J.L. Garland, M.E. Hummerick, T.H. Englert

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The use of composting technology is attractive to NASA’s Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS) research because it offers a potential reduction in system costs when compared to other waste recycling approaches. Water-soluble leachates from 28-day composted fresh or oven-dried inedible wheat biomass were amended with reagent-grade nutrients to be inorganically equivalent to ½-strength Hoagland’s (control) replenishment solution. A portion of the fresh and oven-dried compost leachate was filtered to remove large organic particles and a majority of the microflora, and wheat plants were grown hydroponically on these amended leachates. For both the fresh and oven-dried compost leachate treatments, filtering the leachate had no effect on plant response. No significant difference was observed between the fresh compost leachate treatments and the control. However, growing wheat plants on the oven-dried compost leachate treatments showed significant reductions in growth compared to the control. These results suggest that the additional microbial loading and organic particulates are not responsible for previous observations of reduced growth for plants grown on compost leachates. Additionally, 28 days is sufficient to remove any phytotoxic properties from fresh compost, however a longer composting time may be necessary for composting oven-dried composter feed material.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2273 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2273/
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Evaluation of a potential potato tuber-inducing factor on seedling growth of several species

2001

S.L. Edney, N.C. Yorio, G.W. Stutte

publication: unknown

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Effect of environment on the free and peptide amino acids in rice, wheat, and soybeans

2001

D.J. Ahn, O. Adeola, S.S. Nielsen

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Controlled environments (CE) in which light, carbon dioxide, and nutrients are regulated are known to affect the chemical composition of plants. Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) environments are required for a Mars or lunar base where food resupply is both impractical and risky. Astronauts in a CELSS would need to grow and process edible biomass into foods. The complete nature of the changes in chemical composition of CE- grown plants is unknown but must be determined to ensure a safe and nutritionally adequate diet. In this article, we report the changes that occur in free and peptide-bound amino acids (AA) of select CELSS crops (rice, wheat, and soybean) grown in the field or in CE. The nonnitrate nonprotein nitrogen fraction was extracted and then analyzed for free and peptide AA. For grain or seeds, AA levels tended to increase from field to CE conditions; however, for vegetative material, AA levels remained the same or decreased from field to CE conditions. As such compositional changes are identified, researchers will be better able to design safe and nutritious diets for astronauts while minimizing needed energy and other resources.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/2001/00000007/00000004/art00004
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Evidence for yellow light suppression of lettuce growth

2001

Tracy A. O. Dougher,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Photochemistry and photobiology

Abstract

Researchers studying plant growth under different lamp types often attribute differences in growth to a blue light response. Lettuce plants were grown in six blue light treatments comprising five blue light fractions (0, 2, 6% from high-pressure sodium [HPS] lamps and 6, 12, 26% from metal halide [MH] lamps). Lettuce chlorophyll concentration, dry mass, leaf area and specific leaf area under the HPS and MH 6% blue were significantly different, suggesting wavelengths other than blue and red affected plant growth. Results were reproducible in two replicate studies at each of two photosynthetic photon fluxes, 200 and 500 mumol m-2 s-1. We graphed the data against absolute blue light, phytochrome photoequilibrium, phototropic blue, UV, red:far red, blue:red, blue: far red and 'yellow' light fraction. Only the 'yellow' wavelength range (580-600 nm) explained the differences between the two lamp types.
doi: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)073<0208:efylso>2.0.co;2 pubmed: 11272736 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1562/0031-8655(2001)0730208EFYLSO2.0.CO2
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Differences in the response of wheat, soybean and lettuce to reduced blue radiation

2001

Tracy A. O. Dougher,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Photochemistry and photobiology

Abstract

Although many fundamental blue light responses have been identified, blue light dose-response curves are not well characterized. We studied the growth and development of soybean, wheat and lettuce plants under high-pressure sodium (HPS) and metal halide (MH) lamps with yellow filters creating five fractions of blue light. The blue light fractions obtained were < 0.1, 2 and 6% under HPS lamps, and 6, 12 and 26% under MH lamps. Studies utilizing both lamp types were done at two photosynthetic photon flux levels, 200 and 500 mumol m-2 s-1 under a 16 h photoperiod. Phytochrome photoequilibria was nearly identical among treatments. The blue light effect on dry mass, stem length, leaf area, specific leaf area and tillering/branching was species dependent. For these parameters, wheat did not respond to blue light, but lettuce was highly sensitive to blue light fraction between 0 and 6% blue. Soybean stem length decreased and leaf area increased up to 6% blue, but total dry mass was unchanged. The blue light fraction determined the stem elongation response in soybean, whereas the absolute amount of blue light determined the stem elongation response in lettuce. The data indicate that lettuce growth and development requires blue light, but soybean and wheat may not.
doi: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)073<0199:ditrow>2.0.co;2 pubmed: 11272735 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1562/0031-8655(2001)0730199DITROW2.0.CO2
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Growth and development of plants in a row of generations under the conditions of space flight (experiment Greenhouse-5)

2001

MA Levinskikh, VN Sychev,TA Derendiaeva, OB Signalova, IG Podol'skiĭ, SV Avdeev, GE Bingheim

publication: Aviakosmicheskaia i ekologicheskaia meditsina = Aerospace and environmental medicine

Abstract

Results of the experiment aimed at harvesting a second space generation of wheat var. Apogee in Mir greenhouse Svet (experiment GREENHOUSE-5) are presented. In space flight, germination rate of space seeds from the first crop made up 89% against 100% of the ground seeds. The full biological ripeness was observed in 20 plants grown from the ground seeds and one plant grown from the space seeds following 80- to 90-d vegetation. The plant of the second space generation was morphologically different neither from the species in the first space crop nor from the ground controls. To study the biological characteristics of Apogee seeds gathered in the first and second crops in spaceflight experiment GREENHOUSE-5, the seeds were planted on their return to the laboratory. Morphometric analysis showed that they were essentially similar to the controls. Hence, the space experiments in Mir greenhouse Svet performed during 1998-1999 gave proof that plants cultivated in microgravity can pass the ontogenetic cycle more than once. However, initial results of the investigations into growth and development of plants through several generations are still in-sufficient to speak of possible delayed effects of the spaceflight factors (microgravity, multicomponent radiation, harmful trace contaminants etc.).
pubmed: 11668959 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11668959
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The efficacy of plant residue degradation products on phosphorus, iron, iodine, and fluorine bioavailability to plants

2001

Cheryl L. Mackowiak

publication: Thesis

Abstract

Plant and animal wastes degrade in soils to form relatively stable humified compounds, which form ion complexes that affect the bioavailability of elements in the soil solution. Hydroponic studies with wheat and rice were conducted to characterize the effect of humic acid (HA) on phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), fluorine (F), and iodine (I) bioavailability. Ferrihydrite [Fe(OH)₃] precipitation was greater on root surfaces without HA or synthetic chelates. Oxides such as ferrihydrite strongly adsorb P and provide exchange sites for metals. HA reduced this precipitate and increased P and Fe uptake. Humic acid had no effect on F toxicity in rice, where solution levels above 0.5 mM F inhibited growth. Data supported the hypothesis that in moderately acidic solutions (pH < 6), F uptake is primarily as HF rather than F*. Doubling solution Ca caused a 10-fold increase in root surface CaF2 precipitates, but the additional Ca did not decrease F toxicity. Calcium levels above 1 mM caused HA to flocculate over time, but Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the addition of F reduced flocculation by competing with HA for Ca. The majority of shoot F was apparently associated with the middle lamella, suggesting that F may bind with phosphates and pectate-Ca. Organic matter promotes aqueous iodine (I_2(aq)) reduction to I-, a less toxic species. HA reduced I_2(aq) toxicity by 50%. In solutions without HA, 6.5 pM I2(aq) was more toxic than 30 pM I-. Humic acid had no effect on I- uptake or toxicity, where I- and IO_{3_{^- were toxic to rice at 10 and 100 pM, respectively.
These data were used to model element cycling through plants in a regenerative
human life support system for NASA’s Advanced Life Support program, where HA, P,
Fe, F, and I from plant residues and human wastes are recycled to the crop production
system.}}
link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/f96b43846a9498bcbb8a0905f3ed403c/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=...
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Development of a cultivation technology and selection of leaf vegetable cultures for space greenhouse

2001

MA Levinskikh, OB Signalova, TA Derendiaeva, OG Livanskaia, EL Nefedova, VN Sychev, GI Podo'skiĭ

publication: Aviakosmicheskaia i ekologicheskaia meditsina = Aerospace and environmental medicine

Abstract

We plan to perform space experiments on development of a technology for cultivation of leaf vegetables that might be a component of future life support systems for space crews. For this purpose, we are going to fly research greenhouses with the crop area from 0.03 up to 0.1 m2 inside the universal docking module of the ISS Russian segment. To prepare for future space experiments, ground investigations were made in order to compare crop capacity of various artificial soils used to grow leaf vegetables in greenhouse Svet. Useful life of root module Svet can be extended with a new technology based on resupply of fibrous substrate with nutrients. The most effective volume of soil per a plant was determined which sustains high productivity of leaf vegetables in Svet. To select leaf vegetables for in-space cultivation, we conducted investigations of productivity, morphometric and biochemical characteristics, and palatability of 18 cultures including alternative greens highly popular in Japan and China which have been earlier tested neither in laboratory nor in space within the closed eco-system projects. We would prioritize mizuna, pak choi, tatsoi, rapina or broccoli raab, and red giant mustard as objects for in-space investigations.
pubmed: 11385987 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/11385987
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Comparative floral development of Mir-grown and ethylene-treated, earth-grown Super Dwarf wheat

2001

William F. Campbell,Frank B. Salisbury,Bruce Bugbee,Steven Klassen,Erin Naegle,Darren T. Strickland,Gail E. Bingham,Margarita Levinskikh,Galena M. Iljina,Tatjana D. Veselova,Vladimir N. Sytchev,Igor Podolsky,William R. McManus,David L. Bubenheim,Joseph Stieber,Gary Jahns

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

To study plant growth in microgravity, we grew Super Dwarf wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the Svet growth chamber onboard the orbiting Russian space station, Mir, and in identical ground control units at the Institute of BioMedical Problems in Moscow, Russia. Seedling emergence was 56% and 73% in the two root-module compartments on Mir and 75% and 90% on earth. Growth was vigorous (produced ca. 1 kg dry mass), and individual plants produced 5 to 8 tillers on Mir compared with 3 to 5 on earth-grown controls. Upon harvest in space and return to earth, however, all inflorescences of the flight-grown plants were sterile. To ascertain if Super Dwarf wheat responded to the 1.1 to 1.7 micromoles mol-1 atmospheric levels of ethylene measured on the Mir prior to and during flowering, plants on earth were exposed to 0, 1, 3, 10, and 20 micromoles mol-1 of ethylene gas and 1200 micromoles mol-1 CO2 from 7 d after emergence to maturity. As in our Mir wheat, plant height, awn length, and the flag leaf were significantly shorter in the ethylene-exposed plants than in controls; inflorescences also exhibited 100% sterility. Scanning-electron-microscopic (SEM) examination of florets from Mir-grown and ethylene-treated, earth-grown plants showed that development ceased prior to anthesis, and the anthers did not dehisce. Laser scanning confocal microscopic (LSCM) examination of pollen grains from Mir and ethylene-treated plants on earth exhibited zero, one, and occasionally two, but rarely three nuclei; pollen produced in the absence of ethylene was always trinucleate, the normal condition. The scarcity of trinucleate pollen, abrupt cessation of floret development prior to anthesis, and excess tillering in wheat plants on Mir and in ethylene-containing atmospheres on earth build a strong case for the ethylene on Mir as the agent for the induced male sterility and other symptoms, rather than microgravity.
doi: 10.1078/S0176-1617(04)70129-7 pubmed: 12033229 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161704701297
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Design Parameters for Mars Deployable Greenhouses

2001

Ray A. Bucklin, James D. Leary, Vadim Rygalov, Yang Mu, Phil A. Fowler

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Concepts for landing missions on Mars often include greenhouse structures for plant production. The types of structures proposed vary from small automatically deployed structures for research purposes to larger structures that would be used for food production. Present plans are that greenhouses on Mars will be operated at internal pressures as low as 0.1 to 0.2 Earth atmospheres. Low internal pressures permit the use of structures with lower mass, but complicate the heat and mass transfer processes involved in maintaining a suitable environment for plant growth and raise questions about the requirements of plants for growth at low pressures.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2428 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2428/
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Safety issues associated with processing soybeans in an enclosed habitat intended for long-duration space missions

2001

Y. Vodovotz, D.L. Hentges

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Soybeans have been selected to be grown in a habitat (BIO-Plex, Bioregenerative Planetary Life Support Systems Test Complex) designed to evaluate advanced life support systems for long-duration space missions. Soymilk and soy bread will be incorporated into this nutritious, plant-based food system. Because all consumables will be recycled and reused, food safety is a particular concern. Critical control points were identified to control microbiological hazards, particularly mycotoxins, and chemical hazards from antinutrients and volatiles emitted during processing of soymilk and soy bread. Volatile compounds, evolved during the manufacturing of soymilk and soy bread, were quantified by GC/MS to assess their impact on this closed loop system. All concentrations of volatiles evolved during soymilk production were below the 24-h Space Craft Maximum Allowable Concentration (SMAC), while acetaldehyde surpassed the SMAC criteria for soy bread. Recommendations were made for processing of soybeans in such environments to minimize risk to crew member health.
pubmed: 11724072 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2001/00000008/00000001/art00001
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Soybean and corn seed germination in space: The first plant study conducted on Space Station Alpha

2001

H.G. Levine, K.L. Norwood, G.K. Tynes, L.H. Levine

publication: Space Congress

Abstract

The JOSE (JASON Outreach Seed Experiment) payload was the first plant study conducted on Space Station Alpha. The experiment consisted of having an on-orbit watering of eight seed pouches, each of which contained either six soybean or six corn seeds glued to a germination paper substrate. Two pouches containing corn plus two pouches containing soybean seeds were maintained in the light after watering. Two additional seed pouches of each species were maintained in the dark after watering. Digital photography was used to document the growth of the germinating seedlings in space. The images were down-linked and posted to a world wide web site for dissemination to students. Details relating to the experimental design are presented. "Within" species differences (between the light and dark grown seedlings) as well as "between" species differences (comparing corn and soybean) were observed.
link: https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings/proceedings-2001-38th/may-3-2001/12/
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Improving spinach, radish, and lettuce growth under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with blue light supplementation

2001

Neil C. Yorio,Gregory D. Goins,Hollie R. Kagie,Raymond M. Wheeler,John C. Sager

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Radish (Raphanus sativus L. cv. Cherriette), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Waldmann's Green), and spinach (Spinacea oleracea L. cv. Nordic IV) plants were grown under 660-nm red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and were compared at equal photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) with either plants grown under cool-white fluorescent lamps (CWF) or red LEDs supplemented with 10% (30 micromoles m-2 s-1) blue light (400-500 nm) from blue fluorescent (BF) lamps. At 21 days after planting (DAP), leaf photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance were greater for plants grown under CWF light than for those grown under red LEDs, with or without supplemental blue light. At harvest (21 DAP), total dry-weight accumulation was significantly lower for all species tested when grown under red LEDs alone than when grown under CWF light or red LEDs + 10% BF light. Moreover, total dry weight for radish and spinach was significantly lower under red LEDs + 10% BF than under CWF light, suggesting that addition of blue light to the red LEDs was still insufficient for achieving maximal growth for these crops.
pubmed: 12542027 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Sager/publication/10938361_Improving_Spinach_Radish_and...
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Cell-wall architecture and lignin composition of wheat developed in a microgravity environment

2001

Lanfang H Levine,A.Gerard Heyenga,Howard G Levine,Joon-Weon Choi,Laurence B Davin,Abraham D Krikorian,Norman G Lewis

publication: Phytochemistry

Abstract

The microgravity environment encountered during space-flight has long been considered to affect plant growth and developmental processes, including cell wall biopolymer composition and content. As a prelude to studying how microgravity is perceived - and acted upon - by plants, it was first instructive to investigate what gross effects on plant growth and development occurred in microgravity. Thus, wheat seedlings were exposed to microgravity on board the space shuttle Discovery (STS-51) for a 10 day duration, and these specimens were compared with their counterparts grown on Earth under the same conditions (e.g. controls). First, the primary roots of the wheat that developed under both microgravity and 1 g on Earth were examined to assess the role of gravity on cellulose microfibril (CMF) organization and secondary wall thickening patterns. Using a quick freeze/deep etch technique, this revealed that the cell wall CMFs of the space-grown wheat maintained the same organization as their 1 g-grown counterparts. That is, in all instances, CMFs were randomly interwoven with each other in the outermost layers (farthest removed from the plasma membrane), and parallel to each other within the individual strata immediately adjacent to the plasma membranes. The CMF angle in the innermost stratum relative to the immediately adjacent stratum was ca 80 degrees in both the space and Earth-grown plants. Second, all plants grown in microgravity had roots that grew downwards into the agar; they did not display "wandering" and upward growth as previously reported by others. Third, the space-grown wheat also developed normal protoxylem and metaxylem vessel elements with secondary thickening patterns ranging from spiral to regular pit to reticulate thickenings. Fourthly, both the space- and Earth-grown plants were essentially of the same size and height, and their lignin analyses revealed no substantial differences in their amounts and composition regardless of the gravitational field experienced, i.e. for the purposes of this study, all plants were essentially identical. These results suggest that the microgravity environment itself at best only slightly affected either cell wall biopolymer synthesis or the deposition of CMFs, in contrast to previous assertions.
doi: 10.1016/s0031-9422(01)00148-0 pubmed: 11423135 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031942201001480
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ESA developments in life support technology: achievements and future priorities

2001

C.J. Savage, G.B.T. Tan, C. Lasseur

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

Following an enthusiastic start in 1985, ESA's life support technology development programme was re-assessed in the mid- to late-1990s to reflect the strong reduction in European manned space ambitions which occurred at that time. Further development was essentially restricted to activities that could constitute ISS upgrades or enhancements, or support ISS utilisation/operations, together with a single, limited, activity (MELISSA) aimed at bioregenerative life support, in the continuing hope that there might be “life after Station”. The paper describes the current status of these activities and summarises the main priorities for future development that were identified at the April 1999 Workshop on Advanced Life Support.
doi: 10.1016/S0094-5765(01)00110-2 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576501001102
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Effects of high ammonium/nitrate ratios on nitrification and growth of wheat in hydroponic cultures

2001

D.J. Muhlestein

publication: Thesis

Abstract

Wheat was grown to maturity with either 15% or 80% of the N supplied as NH4+. The effect of using Cl− versus SO4²⁻ as counter ions to NH4 + was also examined. Yield was not significantly affected by NH 4+ ratio or counter ion. Seed protein increased from 15 to 19% and harvest index decreased from 52 to 48% with 80% NH4+. The effect of pH (5.8 or 7.0), inoculation with nitrifying bacteria, and the presence of plants were examined. Nitrate began to accumulate in 5 d in unplanted, inoculated bottles at pH 7.0, but did not accumulate in other treatments until 20 d or later. Nitrate never accumulated in any of the planted
link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/6f15f954fefb908eb0f43aa0e4c0e41c/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=...
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Quantitative morphological analysis of spinach leaves grown under light-emitting diodes or sulfur-microwave lamps

2001

Elizabeth Stryjewski,Gregory Goins,Christopher Kelly

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Alternative lighting sources that offer advantages over traditional lighting regimes are being investigated for space-based plant growth applications. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and sulfur-microwave lamps are among these candidate systems because of their potential for reduced power consumption and increased radiation use efficiency over conventional lighting systems such as high-pressure sodium (HPS) and cool white fluorescence (CWF). The effects of LEDs and microwave lamps on plant growth must also be characterized before they can be considered for spaceflight applications. Leaf morphology of spinach plants (Spinacia oleracea L. cv. Whitney) grown for 28 days under sulfur-microwave lamps or one of 4 LED arrays with peak output wavelengths of 660, 690, 700 and 725nm, (each supplemented with 470nm blue LEDs) was compared to control plants grown under HPS and CWF. Anatomical features were similar among plants grown under the control, microwave, 660 and 690nm LED lighting systems. In contrast, significant differences in leaf and petiole structures were evident in plants grown under the 700 and 725nm LED arrays compared to the controls. Leaf thickness and cross-sectional petiole area were 25% smaller in plants grown under the 700nm LED array and 60% smaller in plants grown under the 725nm LED array. Additionally, the ratio of leaf palisade mesophyll to spongy mesophyll decreased disproportionately in these plants. Under the 700nm LED array, the palisade mesophyll was 37% thinner than the controls, yet the spongy mesophyll was not significantly thinner. Under the 725nm LED array the palisade mesophyll was virtually undetectable, leaving nearly the entire leaf consisting of only spongy mesophyll. Structures designed for maximal light interception were minimized in plants grown under the far-red LED arrays while those devoted to gas exchange were less effected.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2272 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2272/
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Main characteristics of biological components of developing life support system observed during experiment about orbital complex MIR

2001

V.N. Sychev,E.Ya. Shepelev,G.I. Meleshko,T.S. Gurieva,M.A. Levinskikh,I.G. Podolsky,O.A. Dadasheva,V.V. Popov

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Since 1990, the orbital complex MIR has witnessed several incubator experiments for determination of spaceflight effects on embryogenesis of Japanese quail. First viable chicks who had completed the whole embryological cycle in MIR microgravity hatched out in 1990; it became clear that newborns would not be able to adapt to microgravity unaided. There were 8 successful incubations of chicks in the period from 1990 to 1999. In 1995-1997 the MIR-NASA space science program united Russian and US investigators. As a result, experiments Greenhouse-1 and 2 were performed with an effort to grow super dwarf wheat from seed to seed, and experiment Greenhouse-3 aimed at receiving two successive generations of Brassica rapa. But results of these experiments could not be used for definitive conclusions concerning effects of spaceflight on plant ontogenesis and, therefore, experiments Greenhouse-4 and 5 were staged within the framework of the Russian national space program. The experiments finally yielded wheat seeds. Some of the seeds was left on the space station and, being planted, gave viable seedlings which, in their turn, produced the second crop of space seeds.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(01)00245-9 pubmed: 11695432 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117701002459
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Composition and flavonoid levels in onions (Allium cepa) grown in hydroponics in greenhouses and growth chambers

2001

J.L. Morris

publication: Thesis

Abstract

One-thousand eighty long-day onions (Allium cepa L. 'Purplette') grown ' hydroponically in a greenhouse were analyzed for composition and total edible biomass to determine the amount of variability as the plant matures. Plants were harvested at 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 63, 77 and 98 d after sowing. Plant height increased as plants aged, and a significant interaction between planting date and plant age was noted. Plant weight and net number of leaves increased with age and again an interaction between age and planting date was observed. Percent N decreased from 0.55-.34% (p < 0.05) as the plants aged. Percent C (C) decreased (p < 0.05) as the plants aged but after d 77 a significant increase occurred. Ash content increased (p < 0.05) as the plant aged, with means ranging from 0.09 -1.07%. Calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) concentration decreased (p < 0.05) as the plant aged with means rangmg from 128.7 - 14.2 mg/100 g and 57.1 - 22.0 mg/100 g, respectively. Potassium (K) concentrations showed an interaction (p < 0.05) between age and plant age. Total flavonol (TF) content increased (p < 0.05) from 226.1 - 554.7 mg/100g, as the plant aged from 14 d to 98 d. Dry matter (DM) content and sulfur (S)concentration was unchanged (p > 0.05) as the plant aged. Mean values ranged from 10.47-10.70% and 185.2-193.6 mg/100 g for dry matter content and S concentration, respectively. Biomass production and proximate composition of onions varied significantly as the plant ages and underwent morphological changes.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/fb18cb4f-c4bf-49b5-9d78-89d5fc80cffc
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Plant growth and human life support for space travel

2001

R.M. Wheeler, G.W. Stutte, G.V. Subbarao, N.C. Yorio

publication: Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology

Abstract

I. BIOREGENERATIVE SYSTEMS A. Background The balance of the carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), and water in Earth’s biosphere is largely dependent on photosynthetic and transpiration processes of green plants. Indeed, it is photosynthesis that ultimately provides the food and energy that humans and other animals depend on. As technology levels advance, humans will eventually be able to travel away from Earth’s sustaining biosphere on long-term space travel. One approach to providing consumables for space travel would be to grow plants (crops) as part of a bioregenerative life support system.
link: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9780203908426-51/plant-growth-human-life-supp...
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Glycine betaine accumulation—its role in stress resistance

2001

G.V. Subbarao, L.H. Levine, R.M. Wheeler, G.W. Stutte

publication: unknown

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Using mass balance techniques to manage nutrition of hydroponically-grown sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam]

2001

D. G. Mortley,J. H. Hill,C. K. Bonsi,W. A. Hill,C. E. Morris

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

A mass balance nutrient management approach was used in controlled environment studies, to determine an appropriate nutrient solution replenishment regime for the growth of sweetpotato in nutrient film technique (NFT). Four stem cuttings (15-cm long) were planted into each of three gray PVC-1 (0.15×0.15×1.2 m) troughs in a walk-in growth chamber under a 14/10 h photoperiod, 28/22°C and 70% relative humidity. Photosynthetic photon flux at canopy level averaged 450-μmol m−2 s−1. Plants were grown with a modified half-Hoagland starter solution with an extra 3 mM of N for the first 4–6 weeks to accelerate vegetative growth, after which three refill solutions containing 1.5 (A), 4.5 (B), 0.75 (C), or 3 (A), 4.5 (B), and 6 (C) mM NO3−1-N and K, respectively, were used once per week until harvest. The level of N and K in the refill solutions did not significantly influence the number of storage roots produced. Total fresh and dry biomass was significantly greater among plants replenished with the refill solution containing 4.5 mM N and K, respectively. Edible fresh and dry biomass was also greater for plants receiving the refill solution containing 4.5 mM N and K than that for plants replenished with the refill solution containing 0.75/6.0 mM N/K, and similar to that of plants receiving the refill solution containing 1.5/3.0 mM N/K. Harvest index was significantly lower among plants replenished with the refill solution containing 4.5 mM N and K, respectively. Leaf analyses data indicated that sufficiency levels of N, P and K were maintained in plants replenished the refill solution containing 4.5 mM N and K, respectively, but was reduced among plants replenished with the refill solution containing 0.75/6.0 mM N/K. Thus in terms of biomass production and maintaining nutrient levels within the plant, either the refill solution containing 4.5 mM N and K, respectively, or the refill solution containing 1.5/3.0 mM N/K can be used for replenishment.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2274 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2274/
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Manipulating light and temperature to minimize environmental stress in the plant component of bioregenerative life support systems

2001

A.A. Tikhomirov,S.A. Ushakova

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Our experiments examined enhancing tolerance of the photosynthesizing component to possible deviations in thermal or illumination conditions inside a bioregenerative life support system (BLSS). In the event of one parameter getting beyond its optimum, the values of other parameters may ensure minimal damage to the plant component during the period of environmental stress. With wheat plants (one of key elements of the plant component) as an example the work considers whether it is possible to enhance thermal tolerance by varying light intensity. Increase of air temperature to 35 °C or 45 °C with light intensity of 60 W/m2 PAR has been shown to substantially inhibit the photosynthesis processes; at 150 W/m2 PAR photosynthesis decreases from 50 % to 100 %, respectively; when light intensity is increased to 240 W/m2 PAR photosynthesis increased more than 70% at 35 °C and decreased at 45 °C by only 20 %. Thus, light intensity can be increased to avoid or decrease the inhibiting effect of high temperatures. On the other hand, tolerance of wheat plants to prolonged absence of light can be substantially enhanced by decreasing during this period air temperature to temperatures close to 0°C.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(01)00258-7 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117701002587
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Factors controlling oxygen delivery in ALS hydroponic systems

2001

O. Monje,J. Garland,G. W. Stutte

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Future large-scale ALS systems may use hydroponic nutrient delivery systems (NDS) for growing staple and salad crops. Crop performance is strongly dependent on dissolved O2 concentration (DOC), pH, and nutrient content of the hydroponic solution. DOC is influenced by solution temperature and flow rate, growth rate of the crop, and the bacterial community present in the solution. Solution temperature determines the solubility of O2 in water, and may increase as solution volume is reduced to minimize overall system mass. Flow may be altered when the height of the solution bathing the root zone is reduced because of dense root mats. These factors may produce anaerobic pockets where N2 losses by denitrification occur, but without yield losses, as long as sufficient O2 to meet root respiration is supplied. Bacterial communities may compete for DOC with the plants when the NDS is used for recycling gray water streams. Aeration experiments were conducted on a hydroponic system to calculate mass transfer coefficients for O2 as a function of flow rate. These coefficients decreased as flow rate increased, and flow rate was more important than solution temperature in controlling DOC. This analysis was used to suggest minimum flow rates and maximum solution temperatures for meeting gray water recycling O2 demand for a crop growing hydroponically at low light. (Supported by NASA’s Fundamental Space Biology NRA program through NCC-0027).
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2425 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2425/
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Salad crop production under different wavelengths of red light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

2001

Gregory D. Goins,Lisa M. Ruffe,Nathan A. Cranston,Neil C. Yorio,Raymond M. Wheeler,John C. Sager

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) represent an innovative artificial lighting source with several appealing features specific for supporting plants, whether on space-based transit vehicles or planetary life support systems. Appropriate combinations of red and blue LEDs have great potential for use as a light source to drive photosynthesis due to the ability to tailor irradiance output near the peak absorption regions of chlorophyll. This paper describes the importance of far-red radiation and blue light associated with narrow-spectrum LED light emission. In instances where plants were grown under lighting sources in which the ratio of blue light (400–500 nm) relative to far-red light (700–800 nm) was low, there was a distinct leaf stretching or broadening response. This photomorphogenic response sanctioned those canopies as a whole to reach earlier critical leaf area indexes (LAI) as opposed to plants grown under lighting regimes with higher blue:far-red ratios. In many instances, the salad crops grown under LEDs were just as productive as crops grown under broad-spectrum light, largely as a consequence of more efficient light interception during early growth.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2422 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2422/
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Evapotranspiration and photosynthesis characteristics of two wheat cultivars measured in the biomass production system

2001

G. W. Stutte,O. M. Monje,G. D. Goins,L. M. Ruffe

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

A 24-day test of the science protocols for the PESTO (Photosynthesis Experiment System Testing and Operation) experiment was conducted in the Biomass Production System (BPS) flight hardware. One objective of these experiments was to identify the optimum times during the life cycle for characterizing canopy level evapotranspiration and photosynthesis under closed atmosphere conditions in the BPS. Carbon dioxide and light response curves were obtained at three stages of development on two dwarf wheat cultivars, Apogee and Super Dwarf. Net daily carbon assimilation rates were derived from CO2 additions to each chamber and the relative growth rate of each cultivar was determined. Evapotranspiration rates were derived from water additions to the rooting matrix through the nutrient delivery system and water vapor removal from the atmosphere though the humidity control system. The effects of short-term changes in vapor pressure deficit (VPD) on evapotranspiration rates was determined on a full canopy of Super Dwarf during programmed changes in BPS temperature and relative humidity setpoints. (Supported by NASA’s Fundamental Biology Program through NCC-0027).
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2180 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2180/
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Chemical and sensory characteristics of a hydroponic sweetpotato during storage

2001

Adelia Bovell-Benjamin,Elaine Bromfield,Ralphenia Pace,Baowu Wang

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas) is an economic root crop that has been selected as a candidate crop to be grown on space missions by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Mission. This study determined the chemical and sensory behavior of hydroponically grown sweet potato (TU-82-155) during storage. Cured hydroponically grown sweet potatoes (HSP) were stored in palletized crates at 13°C and 80% RH for 42 days. Samples were randomly withdrawn at 0, 7, 14, 28, 35 and 42 days of storage for chemical, instrumental, and sensory analyses. Judges utilized a “just-about-right” attribute scale with five categories to assess the intensity of five sensory attributes. The HSP had a high moisture throughout storage, reflecting an overall mean of 82±2%. The mean fat and protein contents were 0.6±0.5% and 1.8±2%, respectively. The mean carbohydrate content was 15.2±3%, and the ash content ranged from 0.5±0.1% to 0.5±0.8%. There were no significant changes in the L* values (denoting lightness) during storage. The a* value (redness) showed no appreciable decline, but the b* values (yellow) reflected a decline, and a shift in the yellow color. In general, firmness decreased as storage time increased for the HSP. Overall, the chemical characteristics of the HSP are comparable to those reported for various cultivars of field sweetpotatoes. The judges described the HSP as too bland and too rough, but these attributes could be treated.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2278 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2278/
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Nutrient management of sweetpotato in nutrient film technique

2001

D.G. Mortley,C.K. Bonsi,J.H. Hill,W.A. Hill

publication: Acta Horticulturae (Proceedings of the international symposium on growing media and hydroponics, Kassandra, Macedonia, Greece, 31 August-6 September, 1999)

Abstract

Studies were conducted on nutrient management strategies of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) grown in nutrient film technique (NFT) to determine an appropriate protocol to ensure adequate nutrient availability for sweet potatoes storage root production. Vine cuttings (0.15 m long) of TU-82-155 sweet potatoes were grown in 0.15 × 0.15 × 1.2 m NFT channels in controlled environment walk-in growth chambers. Plants were spaced 0.25 m within channels spaced 0.25 m apart. The growth chambers were supplied with a mixture of cool white fluorescent (CWF) and incandescent (INC) lamps providing irradiance at canopy level of 500 mol m-2s-1. Treatments were: (1) 1/3 strength Hoagland solution, (2) 1/2 strength Hoagland concentrated ten times (10X), and (3) a one-half strength Hoagland concentrated twenty times (20X). The nutrient solutions were replenished once per week as follows: the 1/3 stock was added as is, while the 10X and 20X stocks were added based on electrical conductivity (EC) after deionized water was added to the reservoirs. Nutrient solution pH was adjusted to 6.0 at each replenishment by the addition of either dilute NaOH or HCl. Biomass production was similar among treatments. The main response was a significant decrease in foliage dry weight of plants replenished with 10X vs. 1/3, but storage root yields were similar. Nutrient solution pH tended to be low especially after 28 days after application. Based on electrical conductivity, nutrient uptake was most active between 50 and 90 days after application. These results indicate that sweet potato can be grown successfully in NFT with either of the protocols used in this study.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20013131642
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Performance of salad-type plants grown under narrow-spectrum light-emitting diodes in a controlled environment

2001

G. Goins

publication: Proceedings of Bioastronautics Investigators' …

Abstract

New lighting technologies must be developed and existing technologies improved to significantly increase theefficiency of converting electrical energy into edible plant biomass. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) represent aninnovative artificial lighting source with several appealing features specific for supporting plants, whether on space-based transit vehicles or planetary life support systems. Because of their rugged design, small mass and volume, andnarrow spectral output, red and blue LEDs are particularly suited for outfitting plant growth hardware in spaceflightsystems. Appropriate combinations of red and blue LEDs have great potential for use as a light source to drivephotosynthesis due to the ability to tailor irradiance output near the peak absorption regions of chlorophyll.Previous research has shown that red LEDs supplemented with blue light can adequately support various cropplants. Certain mission scenarios depict salad-type plants (i.e., lettuce, spinach, radish, carrot, etc.) representingcrops which will be grown on-board space transportation vehicles on a comparatively small scale. With thisstrategy, salad-type plants would provide a supplemental portion of food, and perhaps provide psychological benefitto the crew. Data generated from these studies with various salad-type crops grown under LED sources providesimportant information for the modeling and development of future applications in growth chambers onboard transitvehicles or on planetary surfaces.
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gregory-Goins/publication/266095040_PERFORMANCE_OF_SALAD-TYP...
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An optimal control strategy for crop growth in advanced life support systems

2001

D.H. Fleisher, H. Baruh

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

A feedback control method for regulating crop growth in advanced life support systems is presented. Two models for crop growth are considered, one developed by the agricultural industry and used by the Ames Research Center, and a mechanistic model, termed the Energy Cascade model. Proportional and pointwise-optimal control laws are applied to both models using wheat as the crop and light intensity as the control input. The control is particularly sensitive to errors in measurement of crop dry mass. However, it is shown that the proposed approach is a potentially viable way of controlling crop growth as it compensates for model errors and problems associated with applying the desired control input due to environmental disturbances.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/2001/00000008/00000001/art00006
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ESA developments in life support technology: achievements and future priorities

2001

C.J. Savage,G.B.T. Tan,C. Lasseur

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

Following an enthusiastic start in 1985, ESA's life support technology development programme was re-assessed in the mid- to late-1990s to reflect the strong reduction in European manned space ambitions which occurred at that time. Further development was essentially restricted to activities that could constitute ISS upgrades or enhancements, or support ISS utilisation/operations, together with a single, limited, activity (MELISSA) aimed at bioregenerative life support, in the continuing hope that there might be "life after Station". The paper describes the current status of these activities and summarises the main priorities for future development that were identified at the April 1999 Workshop on Advanced Life Support.
doi: 10.1016/s0094-5765(01)00110-2 pubmed: 11669121 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576501001102
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Effect of spaceflight on isoflavonoid accumulation in etiolated soybean seedlings

2001

L.H. Levine, H.G. Levine, E.C. Stryjewski, V. Prima, W.C. Piastuch

publication: Journal of gravitational physiology : a journal of the International Society for Gravitational Physiology

Abstract

In order to explore the potential impact of microgravity on flavonoid biosynthesis, we examined isoflavonoid levels in soybean (Glycine max) tissues generated under both spaceflight and clinorotation conditions. A 6-day Space Shuttle-based microgravity exposure resulted in enhanced accumulation of isoflavone glycosides (daidzin, 6"-O-malonyl-7-O-glucosyl daidzein, genistin, 6"-O-malonyl-7-O-glucosyl genistein) in hypocotyl and root tissues, but reduced levels in cotyledons (relative to 1g controls on Earth). Soybean seedlings grown on a horizontally rotating clinostat for 3, 4 and 5 days exhibited (relative to a vertical clinorotation control) an isoflavonoid accumulation pattern similar to the space-grown tissues. Elevated isoflavonoid levels attributable to the clinorotation treatment were transient, with the greatest increase observed in the three-day-treated tissues and smaller increases in the four- and five-day-treated tissues. Differences between stresses presented by spaceflight and clinorotation and the resulting biochemical adaptations are discussed, as is whether the increase in isoflavonoid concentrations were due to differential rates of development under the "gravity" treatments employed. Results suggest that spaceflight exposure does not impair isoflavonoid accumulation in developing soybean tissues and that isoflavonoids respond positively to microgravity as a biochemical strategy of adaptation.
pubmed: 12365447 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/12365447
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Glycine betaine accumulation, ionic and water relations of red beet at contrasting levels of sodium supply

2001

Guntur V. Subbarao,Raymond M. Wheeler,Lanfang H. Levine,Gary W. Stutte

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

Exposure of plants to sodium (Na) and salinity may increase glycine betaine accumulation in tissues. To study this, red-beet cvs. Scarlet Supreme and Ruby Queen, were grown for 42 days in a growth chamber using a re-circulating nutrient film technique with 0.25 mmol/L K and either 4.75 mmol/L (control) or 54.75 mmol/L (saline) Na (as NaCl). Plants were harvested at weekly intervals and measurements were taken on leaf water relations, leaf photosynthetic rates, chlorophyll fluorescence, chlorophyll levels, glycine betaine levels, and tissue elemental composition. Glycine betaine accumulation increased under salinity and this accumulation correlated with higher tissue levels of Na in both cultivars. Na accounted for 80 to 90% of the total cation uptake under the saline treatment. At final harvest (42 days), K concentrations in laminae ranged from approximately 65-95 micromoles g-1 dry matter (DM), whereas Na in shoot tissue ranged from approximately 3000-4000 micromoles g-1. Leaf sap osmotic potential at full turgor [psi(s100)] increased as lamina Na content increased. Glycine betaine levels of leaf laminae showed a linear relationship with leaf sap [psi(s100)]. Chlorophyll levels, leaf photosynthetic rates, and chlorophyll fluorescence were not affected by Na levels. These results suggest that the metabolic tolerance to high levels of tissue Na in red-beet could be due to its ability to synthesize and regulate glycine betaine production, and to control partitioning of Na and glycine betaine between the vacuole and the cytoplasm.
doi: 10.1078/0176-1617-00309 pubmed: 12033231 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161704700942
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Development and characterization of edible peanut protein films

2001

N. Patrick, Y.X. Gan, H.A. Aglan

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

In this work, novel edible films were developed from peanut protein with sorbitol as a plasticizer. The peanut protein was extracted from peanut flour. Two groups of films were prepared. One group contained 10% in weight of natural oil/fat of the peanuts, while the other group contained no oil/fat. Six types of films with 37.5%, 44.5%, and 50% sorbitol content by weight, with and without fat, were chosen for mechanical properties characterization and microscopic observations. It was found that with the increase of sorbitol content, higher tensile strength and higher Young's modulus were achieved for the films without fat. However, films with fat exhibited maximum strength and modulus at 44.5% sorbitol content. Relationships between the mechanical properties and the microscopic features of these films were established. It was found that the higher the content of the sorbitol, the more evident the crystalline structure. Grant numbers: NCC9-51.
pubmed: 11725781 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2001/00000008/00000001/art00003
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Integration of sequential cultivation of main crops and gas and water processing subsystems using closed ecology experiment facility

2001

Yasuhiro Tako,Ryuji Arai,Koji Otsubo,Keiji Nitta

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF) can be used as a test bed for Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS), because technologies developed for the CEEF system facilitate self-sufficient material circulation. Two experiments were conducted from September 27, 1999 to February 17, 2000 and from September 28, 2000 to February 9, 2001 in this study. In both experiments, rice and soybeans were cultivated sequentially in each chamber, having a cultivation bed area of 30 m2 and floor area of 43 m2, inside the Plantation Module (PM) with artificial lighting of the CEEF. 6 to 8 other vegetables were also cultivated in a chamber, having a cultivation bed area of 60 m2 and floor area of 65 m2, inside the PM with natural lighting in the first experiment and the second experiment. In both experiments, stable transplant and harvest of each crop were maintained during approximately one month, after approximately 3-months preparatory cultivation. Flows of gas and liquid materials to and from the crops were analyzed during the stable cultivation period. Almost all equipment of the Gas Processing Subsystem (GPS) of the Closed Plantation Experiment Facilities (CPEF) in the CEEF were operated during the period. Parts of the Water Processing Subsystem (WRPS), which are necessary to recycle condensed water from plantation and to supply nutrient solution for crops, were also operated. Stable operation of both subsystems was confirmed during the period. Daily averages of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein contained in edible biomass from harvested rice and soybeans were 1.2 – 1.3, 1.2 – 1.3, and 1.8 of the necessary amount of each for a standard human activity.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2133 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2133/
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Science accommodations in the Biomass Production System

2001

Robert C. Morrow,Thomas M. Crabb,Jeffery T. Iverson,J.G. Frank

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The Biomass Production System (BPS) is a double middeck locker payload designed to fly on the Orbiter or Space Station. The BPS contains four plant growth chambers (PGCs) with independent control of temperature, humidity, lighting, CO2, and nutrient solution delivery, allowing for multiple experimental treatments. The BPS provides several features to support on-orbit science activities including the ability to downlink system and science data, video cameras with framegrab capability to collect images for recording plant development, access to plants to perform activities such as pollination or tissue sampling, and gas and fluid sampling ports for sampling of the plant environment. Other capabilities include the ability to conduct CO2 drawdowns, allowing photosynthetic measurements, and the ability to meter plant CO2 and water use. Several technology developments have been evaluated for possible implementation during future upgrades to enhance science capabilities.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2231 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2231/
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NDS water pressures affect growth rate by changing leaf area, not single leaf photosynthesis

2001

O. Monje,G. W. Stutte,H. T. Wang,C. J. Kelly

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Plant growth conditions must be optimized for use in advanced life support systems during space flight. Wheat cv. Apogee was grown in a nutrient delivery system (NDS) using porous tubes held at three levels of applied water pressure (Pw), or suction: −0.5 kPa, −0.3 kPa, and −0.1 kPa for 24 days. Measurements of leaf area and dry mass were made at 5, 9, 14, 18 and 24 DAP and used to determine the leaf area index (LAI), net assimilation rate (NAR), and crop growth rate (CGR). Pw did not have a significant effect on plant development until after 9 DAP, at which time growth at different treatments began to diverge. Plants grown at −0.1 kPa exhibited the largest CGR and LAI and had the greatest biomass, suggesting that −0.1 kPa was the optimal Pw. Growth analysis indicated that changes in CGR were due to changes in leaf area, rather than changes in photosynthesis. There were no significant differences between measures of chlorophyll fluorescence: Fv/Fm, qN and qP of plants grown at different Pw, which further indicated that Pw had little effect on leaf photosynthesis. Slight differences in starch content of plants grown at different Pw were observed. This study served as a ground control to determine baseline data characterizing the effect of P_w on wheat growth.
doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2277 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2277/
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Formation of higher plant component microbial community in closed ecological systems

2001

L.S Tirranen

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

Closed ecological systems (CES) place at the disposal of a researcher unique possibilities to study the role of microbial communities in individual components and of the entire system. The microbial community of the higher plant component has been found to form depending on specific conditions of the closed ecosystem: length of time the solution is reused, introduction of intrasystem waste water into the nutrient medium, effect of other component of the system, and system closure in terms of gas exchange. The higher plant component formed its own microbial complex different from that formed prior to closure. The microbial complex of vegetable polyculture is more diverse and stable than the monoculture of wheat. The composition of the components' microflora changed, species diversity decreased, individual species of bacteria and fungi whose numbers were not so great before the closure prevailed. Special attention should be paid to phytopathogenic and conditionally pathogenic species of microorganisms potentially hazardous to man or plants and the least controlled in CES. This situation can endanger creation of CES and make conjectural existence of preplanned components, man, specifically, and consequently, of CES as it is.
doi: 10.1016/s0094-5765(01)00005-4 pubmed: 11858253 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576501000054
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The potential for reducing the weight of a Martian greenhouse

2001

Vadim Ye. Rygalov,Ray A. Bucklin,Alan E. Drysdale,Philip A. Fowler,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: SAE Techinical Paper

Abstract

Use of the local resources on Mars could reduce the cost of life support significantly. Theoretically, Closed Ecological Systems (CES) isolated from surroundings and functioning on the basis of a closed cycle of matter transformation are the most reliable systems for life support in open space or on the surface of non-terrestrial bodies such as the Moon or Mars. But these systems require a relatively high initial mass (which is a critical factor in space flight) in comparison to supply-based systems. In addition CESs are a useful scientific abstraction though they have never been reached in reality.
To minimize the cost of life support on Mars, we need to find scenarios and technologies such as a Martian Greenhouse (MG) which are based on use of the planet’s indigenous sources of energy and materials (natural illumination, carbon dioxide, water, nutrient elements for plants in the planetary soil). Our initial analysis shows that such approaches are possible and cost effective. The mass of supplies associated with the biological part of life support in a MG could probably be reduced to a few percent compared to a completely closed system for Martian conditions. This reduction does not apply to the physical shell and crop support equipment, which will remain practically the same for different kinds of scenarios and systems and determined mainly the physical conditions on Mars (gravitation, atmosphere, radiation, etc.).
Realization of these so called resource oriented scenarios requires development of technologies for MG functioning such as collection of carbon dioxide, separation and concentration of oxygen, accumulation of natural water, treatment of the soil, design of enclosures, light utilization, automation/ control, and others. We also need to investigate the physiological limits of higher plants at low temperatures, illumination, atmospheric pressure, humidity and probably other conditions. There will be costs associated with using Martian resources. However, existing work e.g. at NASA ARC suggests that the benefits will greatly exceed the costs.
In conclusion the most effective way to reduce the mass of the MG is through a balanced approach including MG engineering design, limits of plant physiology, greenhouse and environment interaction and In Situ Resources Utilization (ISRU).

doi: 10.4271/2001-01-2360 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-01-2360/
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[citation] A Canadian Vision for Advanced Life Support

2001

M. Dixon, D. Schmitt

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Nitrate concentration effects on NO3–N uptake and reduction, growth and fruit yields in strawberry

2001

Rebecca L. Darnell,Gary W. Stutte

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Strawberries (Fragaria xananassa Duch. 'Osogrande') were grown hydroponically with three NO3-N concentrations (3.75, 7.5, or 15.0 mM) to determine effects of varying concentration on NO3-N uptake and reduction rates, and to relate these processes to growth and fruit yield. Plants were grown for 32 weeks, and NO3-N uptake and nitrate reductase (NR) activities in roots and shoots were measured during vegetative and reproductive growth. In general, NO3-N uptake rates increased as NO3-N concentration in the hydroponics system increased. Tissue NO3- concentration also increased as external NO3-N concentration increased, reflecting the differences in uptake rates. There was no effect of external NO3-N concentration on NR activities in leaves or roots during either stage of development. Leaf NR activity averaged approximately 360 nmol NO2 formed/g fresh weight (FW)/h over both developmental stages, while NR activity in roots was much lower, averaging approximately 115 nmol NO2 formed/g FW/h. Vegetative organ FW, dry weight (DW), and total fruit yield were unaffected by NO3-N concentration. These data suggest that the inability of strawberry to increase growth and fruit yield in response to increasing NO3-N concentrations is not due to limitations in NO3-N uptake rates, but rather to limitations in NO3- reduction and/or assimilation in both roots and leaves.
pubmed: 12033227 link: https://www.academia.edu/download/80754413/article-p560.pdf
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Light and CO2 interaction on peanut grown in nutrient film technique

2001

D.G. Mortley,J.H. Hill,D.R. Hileman,C.K. Bonsi,W.A. Hill

publication: Proceedings of the international symposium on growing media and hydroponics

Abstract

The response of peanut (Arachis hypogaea) cv. Georgia Red to elevated CO2 of 400 (ambient), 800, 1200, and 1600 µmol mol-1, and photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 350 and 700 µmol m-2s-1 was evaluated under controlled conditions using the nutrient film technique (NFT). Growth chamber conditions included a 12 h photoperiod, 28/24°C thermoperiod and 70±5% relative humidity. Plants were grown for 110 days using a modified half-Hoagland nutrient solution with a pH range of 6.4-6.7 and an electrical conductivity of 1200 µS cm-1. Foliage fresh and dry weights increased with both CO2 and PPF, while harvest index increased with CO2 but was not significantly affected by PPF. Pod fresh weight declined with increased CO2 while pod dry weight increased with PPF. Seed yield was significantly enhanced by both increased carbon dioxide and high PPF. Elevated CO2 did not affect light or CO2 response curves. These results indicate that the level of PPF exerted a greater effect in enhancing peanut growth and seed yield in NFT than did the CO2 concentration.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20013131609
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Intracanopy lighting reduces electrical energy utilization by closed cowpea stands

2001

J.M. Frantz, R.J. Joly, C.A. Mitchell

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

The high planting densities needed to grow edible biomass in sustainable space life support systems will create problems for planophile crops that form closed, self-shading canopies. The use of traditional overhead-lighting configurations will reduce the penetration of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) into such canopies and will result in substantial shading of understory leaves. Intracanopy lighting, an irradiation approach that allows plants to grow around fixed arrays of low-intensity lamps, reduces overall energy expenditure for crop production by improving light distribution and interception throughout the canopy. Comparing different fluorescent lamp geometries within vegetative canopies of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) revealed great plasticity of leaf orientation to maximize absorption of PAR from lamps arrayed at various nontraditional angles. Varying the amount of photosynthetic energy available within canopies creates considerable potential to manipulate canopy productivity. Increasing lamp number 38% within cowpea canopies raised stand productivity 45%, reflecting the highly efficient interception and absorption of intracanopy PAR. However, combined above/within-canopy lighting did not increase overall PAR interception and vegetative yield, and productivity did not improve relative to the same input wattage of intracanopy lighting alone. Optimization of intracanopy lighting for crops to be used in future space life support systems will substantially reduce power and energy burdens for food-crop production.
pubmed: 11676456 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/cog/lsbs/2001/00000007/00000004/art00001
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Field performance of transgenic high protein and essential amino acids sweetpotatoes (Ipomoea batatas L., 318846-3) containing a synthetic storage protein asp-1 gene show no yield / phenotypic cost of an extra gene

2001

M. Egnin, C. Daniels, C.S. Prakash, L. Urban, T. Zimmerman, S. Crossman, J. Jaynes

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Use of induced-fluorescence imaging and green fluorescent proteins to monitor the health of terrestrial plants under simulated Martian environments

2001

A.C. Schuerger, R.J. Ferl, K.A. Corey, T. Murdoch, W. Wells

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The problem of developing a lettuce greenhouse for the International space station and future interplanetary missions

2002

luA Berkovich, NM Krivobok, IE Siniak, SO Smolianshchina, II Grigor'ev, S Romanov, AS Guzenberg

publication: Aviakosmicheskaia i ekologicheskaia meditsina = Aerospace and environmental medicine

Abstract

In order to evaluate the effects of gravity on growing plants, we conducted ground-based long-term experiments with dwarf wheat (cultivar "Apogee USU") and Chinese cabbage (cultivar "Khibinskaja"). The test crop had been grown in overhead position with HPS lamp below the root module so that gravity and light gradients were in opposite direction. Plants of the control crop grew in normal position under the same lamp. Both crops were grown on porous metallic membranes with stable--1 kPa water potential on the surface. Results from these studies allowed us to examine the significant differences in growth and development of the plants as well as the root systems in relation to the gravity force. Nevertheless, the experiments in greenhouse Svet aboard the Mir space station proved that it is possible to compensate the effects of weightlessness on higher plants by manipulating gradients of environmental parameters (i.e. photon flux, water potential in the root zone, etc.). Even in ground studies Svet productivity averaged no more than 14 gm of fresh salad biomass per a day. This does not provide a sufficient supplement nutrients to the ISS crew. A cylindrical design of a space plant growth facility (SPGF) allows for maximal productivity under very tight energy and volume limitations onboard the ISS and a number of operational advantages.
pubmed: 12572116 link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12572116/
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Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus/Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (PGBA/CGBA) Fact Sheet

2002

NASA

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Some considerations on purpose and schedule of the human habitation experiment in CEEF

2002

K. Nitta

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF), an experimental “mini-earth,” is composed of several closed chambers physically separated and sealed from outside except the flows of energy and information. CEEF was designed to house plant, animal, and human ecosystems in the separate chambers and to maintain a constant environment needed to sustain all living organisms in these chambers by circulating CO2, O2, water and other necessary elements for living organisms between chambers. Therefore the overall ecosystem planned in CEEF makes it scientifically a mini-earth model. The behavior of 14CO2 released from nuclear reprocessing sites into the natural environment can be simulated by tracking 14C dynamics in the artificial mini-earth. In the nuclear power generation process, 14C is produced from 13C, 14N, 15N, 16O, and 17O atoms by neutron collision and radioactive decay. Oxygen atoms in uranium oxides and nitrogen atoms contained in the binder used for solidifying fuel rods are changed to 14C, and 14CO2 is also produced during reprocessing and is released. In the natural environment, percentages of carbon isotopes are 12C: 98.892%, 13C: 1.108% and 14C: 0.05%. The decay constant (half life) of 14C radioactive material is about 5570 years. Therefore it is inadvisable to put 14C in the habitat of CEEF, so instead, the stable isotope 13C is used to simulate the accumulation quantities of 14C in each ecosystem and atmosphere of CEEF. The ability of plant leaves to take in CO2 seems to change a little because of the mass difference of 14C and 13C carbon isotopes. This discrimination ratio between 14C and 13C can be measured using the radioisotope laboratory facility located near CEEF. The quantity of 14C taken in by plants is estimated using this discrimination ratio. On the other hand, animals and human eat foods coming from plant biomasses and digest them without any discrimination. And the stored carbon in their bodies can be estimated by analyzing the foods, expiratory gases, and feces and urine excreted. In order to proceed with this radioactive trace experiment, it is necessary to establish the complete circulation system of metabolic materials produced from living organisms including human being. The habitation experiment is on the way to this target and its schedule is presented.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku.14.3_19 link: http://jlc.jst.go.jp/DN/JALC/00165671992?from=Google
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Near-term lander experiments for growing plants on Mars: Requirements for information on chemical and physical properties of Mars regolith

2002

A.C. Schuerger, D.W. Ming, H.E. Newsom, R.J. Ferl, C.P. McKay

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

In order to support humans for long-duration missions to Mars, bioregenerative Advanced Life Support (ALS) systems have been proposed that would use higher plants as the primary candidates for photosynthesis. Hydroponic technologies have been suggested as the primary method of plant production in ALS systems, but the use of Mars regolith as a plant growth medium may have several advantages over hydroponic systems. The advantages for using Mars regolith include the likely bioavailability of plant-essential ions, mechanical support for plants, and easy access of the material once on the surface. We propose that plant biology experiments must be included in near-term Mars lander missions in order to begin defining the optimum approach for growing plants on Mars. Second, we discuss a range of soil chemistry and soil physics tests that must be conducted prior to, or in concert with, a plant biology experiment in order to properly interpret the results of plant growth studies in Mars regolith. The recommended chemical tests include measurements on soil pH, electrical conductivity and soluble salts, redox potential, bioavailability of essential plant nutrients, and bioavailability of phytotoxic elements. In addition, a future plant growth experiment should include procedures for determining the buffering and leaching requirements of Mars regolith prior to planting. Soil physical tests useful for plant biology studies in Mars regolith include bulk density, particle size distribution, porosity, water retention, and hydraulic conductivity.
pubmed: 12481805 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/f0020003/art00002
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Plant adaptation to low atmospheric pressure: Potential molecular responses

2002

R.J. Ferl, A.C. Schuerger, A.L. Paul, W.B. Gurley, K. Corey, R. Bucklin

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

There is an increasing realization that it may be impossible to attain Earth normal atmospheric pressures in orbital, lunar, or Martian greenhouses, simply because the construction materials do not exist to meet the extraordinary constraints imposed by balancing high engineering requirements against high lift costs. This equation essentially dictates that NASA have in place the capability to grow plants at reduced atmospheric pressure. Yet current understanding of plant growth at low pressures is limited to just a few experiments and relatively rudimentary assessments of plant vigor and growth. The tools now exist, however, to make rapid progress toward understanding the fundamental nature of plant responses and adaptations to low pressures, and to develop strategies for mitigating detrimental effects by engineering the growth conditions or by engineering the plants themselves. The genomes of rice and the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana have recently been sequenced in their entirety, and public sector and commercial DNA chips are becoming available such that thousands of genes can be assayed at once. A fundamental understanding of plant responses and adaptation to low pressures can now be approached and translated into procedures and engineering considerations to enhance plant growth at low atmospheric pressures. In anticipation of such studies, we present here the background arguments supporting these contentions, as well as informed speculation about the kinds of molecular physiological responses that might be expected of plants in low-pressure environments.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/00000002/art00005
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Light, plants, and power for life support on Mars

2002

F.B. Salisbury, W.F. Dempster, J.P. Allen, A. Alling, D. Bubenheim, M. Nelson, S. Silverstone

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Regardless of how well other growing conditions are optimized, crop yields will be limited by the available light up to saturation irradiances. Considering the various factors of clouds on Earth, dust storms on Mars, thickness of atmosphere, and relative orbits, there is roughly 2/3 as much light averaged annually on Mars as on Earth. On Mars, however, crops must be grown under controlled conditions (greenhouse or growth rooms). Because there presently exists no material that can safely be pressurized, insulated, and resist hazards of puncture and deterioration to create life support systems on Mars while allowing for sufficient natural light penetration as well, artificial light will have to be supplied. If high irradiance is provided for long daily photoperiods, the growing area can be reduced by a factor of 3-4 relative to the most efficient irradiance for cereal crops such as wheat and rice, and perhaps for some other crops. Only a small penalty in required energy will be incurred by such optimization. To obtain maximum yields, crops must be chosen that can utilize high irradiances. Factors that increase ability to convert high light into increased productivity include canopy architecture, high-yield index (harvest index), and long-day or day-neutral flowering and tuberization responses. Prototype life support systems such as Bios-3 in Siberia or the Mars on Earth Project need to be undertaken to test and further refine systems and parameters.
pubmed: 12481808 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/f0020003/art00005
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Seed Storage Reserves and Glucosinolates in Brassica rapa L. Grown on the International Space Station.

2002

M.E. Musgrave,A. Kuang,L.K. Tuominen,L.H. Levine,R.C. Morrow

publication: Journal of the …

Partial Abstract

Although plants are envisioned to play a central role in life support systems for future long-duration space travel, plant growth in space has been problematic due to horticultural problems of nutrient delivery and gas resupply posed by the weightless environment. Iterative improvement in hardware designed for growth of plants on orbital platforms now provides confidence that plants can perform well in microgravity, enabling investigation of their nutritional characteristics. Plants of B. rapa (cv. Astroplants) were grown in the Biomass ...
link: https://www.academia.edu/download/51420441/Unknown_-_Unknown_-_Seed_Storage_Reserves_and_Glucosin...
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A distributed control system for low-pressure plant growth chambers

2002

D. Brown, R.E. Lacey

publication: 2002 ASAE Annual Meeting

Abstract

This paper discusses the development of a distributed control system for low-pressure plant growth chambers using microcontrollers, a computer, and a process gas chromatograph. Variables that are critical to supporting long-term, manned exploration of space and may affect plant growth and development are monitored and controlled. The system incorporates six low pressure growth chambers, each controlled by a single PIC16F877 microcontroller. Data from the microcontrollers are routed through a PC running LabVIEW, which returns setpoints for total pressure and oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen concentration to the microcontrollers. The gas composition is monitored by a process gas chromatograph, which delivers data to the PC via the MODBUS protocol. Temperature control and lighting are supplied by an independent plant growth room, which contains the six low pressure chambers.
doi: 10.13031/2013.9174 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=9174
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Leaf anatomy of Raphanus sativus exposed to space Shuttle/ISS temperature profiles

2002

E. Stryjewski, I. Eraso, G. Stutte

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

A series of experiments was initiated to characterize plant growth at the elevated temperatures typically observed in the space shuttle and the International Space Station (ISS) to allow for subsequent isolation of temperature effects from those of microgravity. Plants were grown in temperatures ranging from 18-30°C in anticipated flight conditions of light intensity, photoperiod, and CO2 concentration. The effects of these environmental variables on leaf development and anatomy were examined. Results indicate that leaf anatomy is significantly effected by elevated temperature. Leaf thickness decreased with increasing temperature and showed an equal reduction in the thickness of the palisade and spongy mesophyll. Shoot fresh and dry weight/unit leaf area increased with increasing temperature and chlorophyll content was reduced. These results indicate that increased temperature lead to a reduction in intercellular air spaces within the leaf.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2387 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2387/
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Remote sensing of gene expression in plants: Transgenic plants as monitors of exogenous stress perception in extraterrestrial environments

2002

M.S. Manak, A.L. Paul, P.C. Sehnke, R.J. Ferl

publication: Life Support & Biosphere Science

Abstract

Transgenic arabidopsis plants containing the alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh) gene promoter fused to the green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene were developed as biological sensors for monitoring physiological responses to unique environments. Plants were monitored in vivo during exposure to hypoxia, high salt, cold, and abcissic acid in experiments designed to characterize the utility and responses of the Adh/GFP biosensors. Plants in the presence of environmental stimuli that induced the Adh promoter responded by expressing GFP, which in turn generated a detectable fluorescent signal. The GFP signal degraded when the inducing stimulus was removed. Digital imaging of the Adh/GFP plants exposed to each of the exogenous stresses demonstrated that the stress-induced gene expression could be followed in real time. The experimental results established the feasibility of using a digital monitoring system for collecting gene expression data in real time from Transgenic Arabidopsis Gene Expression System (TAGES) biosensor plants during space exploration experiments.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/00000002/art00004
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Low pressure greenhouse concepts for Mars

2002

Vadim Ye. Rygalov,Ray A. Bucklin,Alan E. Drysdale,Philip A. Fowler,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The main principles of artificial atmospheric design for a Martian Greenhouse (MG) are described based on:
1. Cost-effective approach to MG realization; 2. Using in situ resources (e.g. CO2, O2, water); 3. Controlled greenhouse gas exchange by using independent pump in and pump out technologies.
We show by mathematical modeling and numerical estimates based on reasonable assumptions that this approach for Martian deployable greenhouse (DG) implementation could be viable. A scenario of MG realization (in terms of plant biomass/photosynthesis, atmospheric composition, and time) is developed. A list is given of technologies (natural water collection, MG inflation, oxygen collection and storage, etc.) that are used in the design. The conclusions we reached are:
1. Initial stocks of oxygen and water probably would be required to initiate plant germination and growth; 2. Active control of MG ventilation could provide proper atmospheric composition for each period of plant growth; 3. MG operation based on simplest technological solutions could provide for oxygen accumulation for people arriving on Mars.
There is a reasonable prospect of achieving cost effectiveness during a single 600-day mission. A short description of future development of a Mars Greenhouse-project is presented.

doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2392 link: https://www.sae.org/gsdownload/?prodCd=2002-01-2392
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Monitoring and control for artificial climate design

2002

Philip A. Fowler,Sencer Yeralan,Yang Mu,Ray Bucklin,Vadim Rygalov,Ray Wheeler,Mike Dixon

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The monitoring and control of an artificial climate is necessitated by the Mars Dome Project (MDP) [ref 1]. MDP is designed to grow plants in an enclosed structure under reduced pressure. This system includes a dome enclosure, an environmental control system, a plant growth system, a data logging system, and an external vacuum vessel [ref 2]. Each of these systems is integrated by the use of a solid-state control device located inside the base of the Atmospheric Tower Management System (ATMS). Details of the controller follow a short summary of the major components of the MDP.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2286 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2286/
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Evaluation of alternative water input modes for space-based plant culture applications

2002

Howard G. Levine,Georgiana K. Tynes,Joey H. Norikane,Kevin Burtness

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Wheat seeds were automatically imbibed and germinated within a Porous Tube Insert Module (PTIM) apparatus developed to support both porous tube and substrate-based nutrient delivery systems (PTNDS, SNDS) in space. The PTIM was operated under both; (1) a programmable fixed feed mode, and (2) a moisture sensor feedback control mode. For the former, increased levels of water use efficiency were evident within the PTNDS component of the study. For the latter, moisture sensors within the SNDS were evaluated at setpoints of 65-85% relative water content. Data demonstrating the ability of this approach to control moisture levels and the vertical moisture distribution patterns obtained over an 18 d grow-out interval are presented.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2381 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2381/
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Evaluation of an ebb and flow nutrient delivery technique applicable to growing plants in microgravity

2002

Yu. A. Berkovich,G. K. Tynes,J. H. Norikane,H. G. Levine

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

A promising approach for the watering and aeration of substrates in space-based plant root modules is to use a periodic watering/evacuation through a porous membrane or an Ebb/Flow Nutrient Delivery System (EFNDS). Wheat (Triticum aestivum cv Yecora rojo) grown utilizing the EFNDS approach achieved productivities equivalent to controls employing a traditional direct flow approach. When the EFNDS approach is used in conjunction with a fibrous ion-exchange resin substrate (FIERS), the ebb cycle effectively vented 50-55% of the FIERS pores by volume (resupplying oxygen), and freed the substrate of unwanted root exudates. Several advantages of the EFNDS approach can be crucial during plant cultivation in microgravity.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2383 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2383/
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Daily light period influences pod yield, harvest index, and flowering of peanut grown in nutrient film technique

2002

D. G. Mortley,C. K. Bonsi,W. A. Hill,C. E. Morris

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

‘Georgia Red’ peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) was grown at 8-, 12-, 16-, and 20-h light [9.3, 18.6, 13.95, and 23.9 mol m-2 d-1 integrated photosynthetic photon flux (PPF)] /16, 12-, 8-, and 4-h dark cycles, respectively, to evaluate effects on pod and seed yield, flowering, harvest index (HI) and production efficiency, in response to duration and amount of daily lighting. Ten-day old peanut seedlings were transplanted into rectangular nutrient film technique troughs (0.15 × 0.15 × 1.2 m) and grown for 110 days. Growth chamber conditions were as follows: photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) mean of 332 μmol m −2 s −1, 28°C light/24°C dark cycle, and 70 ±5% relative humidity. The nutrient solution used was a modified half-Hoagland with pH and electrical conductivity maintained between 6.5-6.7, and 1000-1200 μS cm-1 respectively, and was replenished weekly. Foliage and pod fresh and dry weights and total seed yield increased with daily PPF up to 16-h (18.6 mol m-2 d−1) but declined at 20-h (23.5 mol m-2 d-1). Harvest index and production efficiency decreased with increased daily PPF. Flowering was delayed approximately 3 days as day length decreased while the cumulative number and rate of flowering increased substantially as daily PPF increased.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2488 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2488/
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A rapid assessment technique for the screening of sweetpotato for use in bioregenerative life support applications

2002

M. N. Alvarez,D. Mortley,C. Bonsi,J. Hill

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Single leaf sweetpotato cuttings were used for rapid screening of a sample population for adaptation to hydroponics. Leaves cut at the union with the stem were planted in channels covered with white plastic. Holes were punctured through the plastic for the leaf petiole to stand in the channels. They grew in an environmental chamber at 28/22° C, 70% relative humidity and 14 hours light regime at 600 μmol m −2 s−1/10 hours dark. Five leaves per line were evaluated after 14 days. This technique differentiated the performance of genotypes and showed that there is much variability for the characters measured.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2485 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2485/
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Plant production systems for microgravity: Critical issues in water, air, and solute transport through unsaturated porous media. NASA Tech Mem, Johnson Space Center

2002

S.L. Steinberg, D.W. Ming, D. Henninger

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

This NASA Technical Memorandum is a compilation of presentations and discussions in the form of minutes from a workshop entitled Plant Production Systems for Microgravity: Critical Issues in Water, Air, and Solute Transport Through Unsaturated Porous Media held at NASA's Johnson Space Center, July 24-25, 2000. This workshop arose from the growing belief within NASA's Advanced Life Support Program that further advances and improvements in plant production systems for microgravity would benefit from additional ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=MKA9AQAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA28&dq=Plant+production+syste...
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Bioregenerative food system cost based on optimized menus for advanced life support

2002

G.R. Waters, A. Olabi, J.B. Hunter, M.A. Dixon, C. Lasseur

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Optimized menus for a bioregenerative life support system have been developed based on measures of crop productivity, food item acceptability, menu diversity, and nutritional requirements of crew. Crop-specific biomass requirements were calculated from menu recipe demands while accounting for food processing and preparation losses. Under the assumption of staggered planting, the optimized menu demanded a total crop production area of 453 m2 for six crew. Cost of the bioregenerative food system is estimated at 439 kg per menu cycle or 7.3 kg ESM crew-1 day-1, including agricultural waste processing costs. On average, about 60% (263.6 kg ESM) of the food system cost is tied up in equipment, 26% (114.2 kg ESM) in labor, and 14% (61.5 kg ESM) in power and cooling. This number is high compared to the STS and ISS (nonregenerative) systems but reductions in ESM may be achieved through intensive crop productivity improvements, reductions in equipment masses associated with crop production, and planning of production, processing, and preparation to minimize the requirement for crew labor.
pubmed: 12481812 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/f0020003/art00009
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Swiss chard: A salad crop for the space program

2002

L.S. Logendra, M.R. Gilrain, T.J. Gianfagna, H.W. Janes

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Salad greens will be among the first crops grown on lunar or planetary space stations. Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L.) is an important candidate salad crop because it is high yielding and rich in vitamins and minerals. Five Swiss chard cultivars were grown in the greenhouse under two light levels for 13 weeks to compare cumulative yields from weekly harvests, mineral composition, and to evaluate sensory attributes as a salad green. The varieties Large White Ribbed (LWR) and Lucullus (LUC) were the highest yielding in both light regimes. LWR was the shortest of the cultivars requiring the least vertical space. LWR also received the highest sensory ratings of the five cultivars. LWR Swiss chard should be considered as an initial test variety in food production modules.
pubmed: 12481809 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/f0020003/art00006
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Photosynthetic period and light integral effects on hydroponic producitonof dry bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, for lilfe support systems

2002

D.S. de Villiers

publication: Thesis

Abstract

Bean meets protein needs in the human diet well, and has historically served as a palatable substitute for meat. Optimal set points for environmental parameters needed to be discovered for use in crop production and cultivar evaluation of the crop for life support. From the physical systems point of view, using continuous light or long photosynthetic periods is advantageous. It was hypothesized dry bean productivity would be higher in longer photosynthetic periods, when daily light integral was matched.
Two day length insensitive cultivars, California Early Light Red Kidney and Etna, were variously exposed to photosynthetic periods of 12, 16, 20 or 24 hours under matched daily light integrals and constant temperature either in greenhouse experiments using daylight supplemented with high pressure sodium light, or in growth chamber experiments using cool white fluorescent lamps. The effects of daily light integral were also determined at four different levels. Destructive harvests were made throughout the crop cycle of some experiments.
No effect of photosynthetic period on yield, productivity, or light use efficiency was found up to 20 mol m−2 day−1 PAR. However, early growth was significantly faster under longer photosynthetic periods. Yield and productivity were found to be directly proportional to daily light integral over the range of integrals tested, 12 through 27 mol M−2 day−1, and light use efficiency was range. Light use efficiency was the same in greenhouse and growth chambers. Use of fluorescent lighting reduced stem extension by approximately 40%. Shortening the photosynthetic period also decreased stem length significantly, but to a smaller degree. Visually striking leaf deterioration phenomena were observed to result from using very long photosynthetic periods; cultivar specificity was demonstrated. Analysis showed timing of harvest could affect cost of production as much as 1% per day of delay in harvest.
It was concluded very long photosynthetic periods are promising for use in bean production, but they must also be proven at higher daily light integrals than those used here. It was judged productivity will exceed 10 g m −2 d−1 when higher daily light integrals and optimal spacing are used.

link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/d965b979b1e19ab384d1fa215e76bcbd/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=...
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Anaerobic conditions improve germination of a gibberellic acid deficient rice

2002

Jonathan M. Frantz,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Crop science

Abstract

Dwarf plants are useful in research because multiple plants can be grown in a small area. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is especially important since its relatively simple genome has recently been sequenced. We are characterizing a gibberellic acid (GA) mutant of rice (japonica cv 'Shiokari,' line N-71) that is extremely dwarf (20 cm tall). Unfortunately, this GA mutation is associated with poor germination (70%) under aerobic conditions. Neither exogenous GA nor a dormancy-breaking heat treatment improved germination. However, 95% germination was achieved by germinating the seeds anaerobically, either in a pure N2 environment or submerged in unstirred tap water. The anaerobic conditions appear to break a mild post-harvest dormancy in this rice cultivar.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci2002.0651 pubmed: 14552358 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci2002.6510
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Water cycles in closed ecological systems: Effects of atmospheric pressure

2002

V.Y. Rygalov, P.A. Fowler, J.A. Metz, R.M. Wheeler, R.A. Bucklin

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

In bioregenerative life support systems that use plants to generate food and oxygen, the largest mass flux between the plants and their surrounding environment will be water. This water cycle is a consequence of the continuous change of state (evaporation-condensation) from liquid to gas through the process of transpiration and the need to transfer heat (cool) and dehumidify the plant growth chamber. Evapotranspiration rates for full plant canopies can range from ~1 to 10 L m-2 d-1 (~1 to 10 mm m-2 d-1), with the rates depending primarily on the vapor pressure deficit (VPD) between the leaves and the air inside the plant growth chamber. VPD in turn is dependent on the air temperature, leaf temperature, and current value of relative humidity (RH). Concepts for developing closed plant growth systems, such as greenhouses for Mars, have been discussed for many years and the feasibility of such systems will depend on the overall system costs and reliability. One approach for reducing system costs would be to reduce the operating pressure within the greenhouse to reduce structural mass and gas leakage. But managing plant growth environments at low pressures (e.g., controlling humidity and heat exchange) may be difficult, and the effects of low-pressure environments on plant growth and system water cycling need further study. We present experimental evidence to show that water saturation pressures in air under isothermal conditions are only slightly affected by total pressure, but the overall water flux from evaporating surfaces can increase as pressure decreases. Mathematical models describing these observations are presented, along with discussion of the importance for considering "water cycles" in closed bioregenerative life support systems.
pubmed: 12481804 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/f0020003/art00001
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Germination and growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) at low atmospheric pressure

2002

Robert Spanarkel,Malcolm C. Drew

publication: Physiologia Plantarum

Abstract

The response of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Waldmann's Green) to low atmospheric pressure was examined during the initial 5 days of germination and emergence, and also during subsequent growth to vegetative maturity at 30 days. Growth took place inside a 66-l-volume low pressure chamber maintained at 70 kPa, and plant response was compared to that of plants in a second, matching chamber that was at ambient pressure (approximately 101 kPa) as a control. In other experiments, to determine short-term effects of low pressure transients, plants were grown at ambient pressure until maturity and then subjected to alternating periods of 24 h of low and ambient atmospheric pressures. In all treatments the partial pressure of O2 was maintained at 21 kPa (approximately the partial pressure in air at normal pressure), and the partial pressure of CO2 was in the range 66.5–73.5 Pa (about twice that in normal air) in both chambers, with the addition of CO2 during the light phase. With continuous exposure to low pressure, shoot and root growth was at least as rapid as at ambient pressure, with an overall trend towards slightly greater performance at the lower pressure. Dark respiration rates were greater at low pressure. Transient periods at low pressure decreased transpiration and increased dark respiration but only during the period of exposure to low pressure. We conclude that long-term or short-term exposure to subambient pressure (70 kPa) was without detectable detriment to vegetative growth and development.
doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3054.2002.1160405.x link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1034/j.1399-3054.2002.1160405.x
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Biosphere 2 as voyage of discovery: The serendipity from the inside

2002

ROY L. WALFORD

publication: [Article] BioScience

Abstract

There is currently an ongoing discourse about “the two cultures of ecology,” a discourse not in fact limited to ecology but involving many biologic disciplines: the analytic culture and the integrative culture (Holling 1998). In a number of universities in the United States, the biology departments are being split along these two cultural lines (Roush 1997).
doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0259:BAVODT]2.0.CO;2 link: https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-abstract/52/3/259/312430
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Growth and development of higher plants under hypobaric conditions

2002

Eiji Goto,Youki Arai,Kenji Omasa

publication: Uchu Seibutsu Kagaku

Abstract

Plant growth experiments were conducted to study the feasibility of growing plants under hypobaric condition. Seeds of rice and Arabidopsis thaliana germinated at 25 kPa total pressure with 5 or 10 kPa O2 partial pressures. Rice plants in vegetative stage grew normally at 50 kPa of total pressure with suitable O2 and CO2 partial pressures, however, their development in reproductive stage was delayed at 50 kPa total pressure. Seed production of Arabidopsis at 23 kPa total pressure with 21 kPa O2 partial pressure was almost the same as that at atmospheric pressure.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2439 pubmed: 12695599 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2439/
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Lada: The ISS Plant Substrate Microgravity Testbed.

2002

Gail E. Bingham,T. Shane Topham,John M. Mulholland,Igor G. Podolsky

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Lada, named for the ancient Russian Goddess of Spring, is a plant growth system developed jointly by the Space Dynamics Laboratory and the Institute of Biomedical Problems for long-term deployment on the International Space Station. Lada uses design features and technology similar to the Svet greenhouse on the Mir orbital outpost, and will be launched to ISS in June 02. It is scheduled to support its first crop (a leafy vegetable - Mizuna [Brassica rapa var. nipposinica]) in October 02. Lada consists of four major components (a control module, two vegetation modules and a water tank) and is designed to be deployed on a cabin wall. This deployment scheme was chosen to provide the crew therapeutic viewing and easy access to the plants. The two independently controlled vegetation modules allow comparisons between two vegetation or substrate treatments. The vegetation modules consist of three sub-modules, a light bank, the leaf chamber, and a root module. The root module is 9 cm deep, and can be instrumented to allow a wide range of substrate water and oxygen diffusion experiments to be conducted during the plant growth experiments. Sensors available in Lada are similar to those provided by the Svet-GEMS system. Specific attention has been paid to the root zone sensor suite, which includes substrate moisture probes, mini-tensiometers, and substrate oxygen sensors. Experiments conducted in Lada will be associated with the Russian National Science program and will follow three themes: substrate management physics, plant production and quality, and crew - plant interaction studies. A unique feature of the Lada concept is that when the system is not being used for supported science experiments, it will be available to crew members to supplement their diet and to enhance flight enjoyment. Plans are in place to train all of the Russian crew members to use Lada. International cooperative experiments exploiting these unique features are now being developed.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2388 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2388/
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Potential integration of wetland wastewater treatment with space life support systems

2002

M. Nelson, A. Alling, W.F. Dempster, M. Van Thillo, J.P. Allen

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Subsurface-flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and nutrient recycling have a number of advantages in planetary exploration scenarios: they are odorless, relatively low labor and low energy, assist in purification of water and recycling of atmospheric CO2, and can directly grow some food crops. This article presents calculations for integration of wetland wastewater treatment with a prototype ground-based experimental facility ("Mars on Earth") supporting four people showing that an area of 4-6 m2 may be sufficient to accomplish wastewater treatment and recycling. Discharge water from the wetland system can be used as irrigation water for the agricultural crop area, thus ensuring complete reclamation and utilization of nutrients within the bioregenerative life support system. Because the primary requirements for wetland treatment systems are warm temperatures and lighting, such bioregenerative systems can be integrated into space life support systems because heat from the lights may be used for temperature maintenance in the human living environment. Subsurface-flow wetlands can be modified for space habitats to lower space and mass requirements. Many of its construction requirements can eventually be met with use of in situ materials, such as gravel from the Mars surface. Because the technology does not depend on machinery and chemicals, and relies more on natural ecological mechanisms (microbial and plant metabolism), maintenance requirements (e.g., pumps, aerators, and chemicals) are minimized, and systems may have long operating lifetimes. Research needs include suitability of Martian soil and gravel for wetland systems, system sealing and liner options in a Mars base, and determination of wetland water quality efficiency under varying temperature and light regimes.
pubmed: 12481806 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/f0020003/art00003
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The removal of carbon monoxide by botanical systems

2002

Garth Munz,Mike Dixon,Alan Darlington

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Carbon monoxide is a major indoor contaminant responsible for over 1000 deaths a year in North America. Sealed environments such as buildings are particularly at risk for this contaminant. Studies in the 1970's and 80's determined that green plants are capable of fixing carbon monoxide through both the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis. Common bacteria oxidize carbon monoxide, utilizing the enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase. Therefore, controlling carbon monoxide levels through botanical and microbial systems may have merit. Preliminary studies have indicated that moss based systems remove significant amounts of the contaminant from a recirculating air stream.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2265 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2265/
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Biomass Production System (BPS) ground based performance testing

2002

R. C. Morrow,J. G. Frank,K. M. Stolp,M. C. Lee

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The longest BPS ground test to-date was the BPS Mission Verification Test done to provide a high fidelity end-to-end system test of BPS hardware and operations. This test took place at Kennedy Space Center from 4/9/01 to 6/21/01. The BPS temperature and humidity control, atmospheric control, lighting, and nutrient delivery systems performed within specifications. Ambient temperature conditions for the test ranged from 22°C to 28°C. Temperature systems performed well over the full range of ambient conditions and temperature setpoints were maintained throughout the test. Humidity setpoints were maintained within specification under nominal conditions; however, drift in humidity was observed during high ambient temperatures with large plant load conditions, and during CO2 drawdowns. CO2 levels in the wheat chambers were within ± 10% of setpoint under nominal conditions. Several automated CO2 drawdowns and CO2 cylinder changeouts were successfully completed. The ethylene scrubber maintained ethylene levels below 50 ppb. Plant growth was initiated in a total of eight root modules. BPS operations from preflight preparation through flight and postflight were demonstrated to be capable of supporting all hardware validation and science requirements.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2482 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2482/
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Growth, stomatal conductance, and leaf surface temperature of Swiss chard grown under different artificial lighting technologies

2002

Gregory D. Goins

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

In controlled environment plant growth chambers, electric lamps provide photons necessary to drive photosynthesis. In order to determine the most productive, energy efficient, and safest way of providing light to plants for a given application, new lighting technologies are being evaluated by various researchers. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) represent an innovative lighting source with several appealing features specific for supporting plants whether on space-based transit vehicles or planetary life support systems. For this study, there was specific interest in Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L. cv. ‘Ruby Red Rhubarb') because these plants are among “salad-type” species chosen for early mission testing on Space Station. Of particular interest, were the growth dynamics and gas exchange characteristics of Swiss chard grown under red LEDs at narrow wavebands, which give different ratios of blue quanta to far-red photons. These types of studies are important for understanding basic plant responses to artificial lighting systems in tightly controlled plant growth systems, and ultimately, for future considerations for space missions.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2338 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2338/
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ORZS: Optimization of Root Zone Substrates for Microgravity

2002

Scott B. Jones,Dani Or,Gail E. Bingham,Robert C. Morrow

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The ORZS flight experiment is designed to measure gas diffusion through plant growth substrates at varying water content levels in microgravity. This information is critical for proper water management and the prevention of root zone hypoxia during plant growth and advanced life support (ALS) biomass production experiments. Microgravity data that suggest enhanced hysteresis in water retention may alter the gas diffusion process, changing the optimum root zone moisture control set point in μg plant growth systems. Small gas diffusion cells are being evaluated as measurement systems for coarse-textured plant growth media at 1g and 0g. Design guidelines aim to minimize gravitational force while maintaining a representative porous medium. Substrate physical properties (e.g., water retention) pose additional complications for diffusion coefficient determination. Results of this study will directly support substrate selection and management for International Space Station (ISS) plant growth experiments.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2380 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2380/
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Analysis of plant water relations under variable pressure: Technical challenges

2002

C. P. Chamberlain,G. T. Graham,M. A. Dixon

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Future space exploration will require advanced life support (ALS) systems capable of in situ resource recycling. Hypobaric, bioregenerative life support systems have been proposed to address this requirement. The need to explore the limits of plant tolerance to hypobaric conditions is clear, however, research has been limited due to the difficulties and costs associated with this field. The Controlled Environment Systems Research Facility (CESRF), at the University of Guelph, Canada, has been designed to address the issues surrounding plant production under reduced pressure conditions. The measurement of plant physiological responses to hypobaric conditions is the subject of this study. Measurements of whole plant water relations, in terms of transpiration and plant water potential, are the ultimate goal. This phase of the work includes development and testing of the variable pressure plant growth chamber, and calibration of the in situ stem psychrometer for measuring plant water potential.
doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2382 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2382/
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Evaluation of tow fiber optic-based solar collection and distribution systems for advanced space life support

2002

D.S. Jack, T. Nakamura, P. Sadler, J.L. Cuello

publication: Transactions of the ASAE

Abstract

Growing plants in an enclosed controlled environment is crucial in developing bioregenerative lifesupport systems (BLSS) for space applications. The major challenge currently facing a BLSS is the extensive use of highly energyintensive electric light sources, which leads to substantial energy wastes through heat dissipations by these lamps. An alternative lighting strategy is the use of a solar irradiance collection, transmission, and distribution system (SICTDS). Two types of fiber opticbased SICTDS, a Fresnellens Himawari and a parabolicmirror optical waveguide (OW) lighting system, were evaluated. The overall efficiency for the OW SICTDS of 40.5% exceeded by 75% that for the Himawari of 23.2%. The spectral distributions of the light delivered by the Himawari and the OW SICTDS were almost identical and had practically no difference from that of terrestrial solar radiation. The ratios of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) to total emitted radiation (k) of 0.39 0.02 for the Himawari and 0.41 0.04 for the OW SICTDS were statistically indistinguishable, were not significantly different from that of 0.042 0.01 for terrestrial solar radiation, and were comparable to that of 0.35 for a highpressure sodium (HPS) lamp. The coefficients of variation (CV) of 0.34 and 0.39 for PPF distributions, both at 50 mm 50 mm square grid arrays, corresponding to the Himawari and the OW SICTDS, respectively, were comparable with each other but were both significantly greater than the CV of 0.08 corresponding to the HPS lamp. The average fresh weight or dry weight of lettuce grown in the solar chamber with either the Himawari or the OW SICTDS showed no statistical difference from the average fresh weight or dry weight of lettuce grown in the reference chamber with the HPS lamp. The results of this study suggest that an SICTDS could help reduce the electric power demand in a BLSS.
doi: 10.13031/2013.11060 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=11060
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A management information system to study space diets

2002

S. Kang, A.J. Both

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

A management information system (MIS), including a database management system (DBMS) and a decision support system (DSS), was developed to dynamically analyze the variable nutritional content of foods grown and prepared in an Advanced Life Support System (ALSS) such as required for long-duration space missions. The DBMS was designed around the known nutritional content of a list of candidate crops and their prepared foods. The DSS was designed to determine the composition of the daily crew diet based on crop and nutritional information stored in the DBMS. Each of the selected food items was assumed to be harvested from a yet-to-be designed ALSS biomass production subsystem and further prepared in accompanying food preparation subsystems. The developed DBMS allows for the analysis of the nutrient composition of a sample 20-day diet for future Advanced Life Support missions and is able to determine the required quantities of food needed to satisfy the crew's daily consumption. In addition, based on published crop growth rates, the DBMS was able to calculate the required size of the biomass production area needed to satisfy the daily food requirements for the crew. Results from this study can be used to help design future ALSS for which the integration of various subsystems (e.g., biomass production, food preparation and consumption, and waste processing) is paramount for the success of the mission.
pubmed: 12481811 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/12481811
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Sensitivity of wheat and rice to low levels of atmospheric ethylene

2002

Stephen P. Klassen,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Crop science

Abstract

Ethylene (C2H4) gas is produced throughout the life cycle of plants and can accumulate in closed growth chambers to levels 100 times higher than in outside environments. Elevated atmospheric C2H4 can cause a variety of abnormal responses, but the sensitivity to elevated C2H4 is not well characterized. We evaluated the C2H4 sensitivity of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) in five studies. The first three studies compared the effects of continuous C2H4 levels ranging from 0 to 1000 nmol mol-1 (ppb) in a growth chamber throughout the life cycle of the plants. A short-term 1000 nmol mol-1 treatment was included in which exposure was stopped at anthesis. Yield was reduced by 36% in wheat and 63% in rice at 50 nmol mol-1 and both species were virtually sterile when continuously exposed to 1000 nmol mol-1. However, the yield reductions were much less with exposure that stopped at anthesis, suggesting the detrimental effect of C2H4 on yield was greatest around the time of seed set. Two additional studies evaluated the differential sensitivity of two wheat cultivars (Super Dwarf and USU-Apogee) to 50 nmol mol-1 C2H4 at three CO2 levels [350, 1200, 5000 micromoles mol-1 (ppm)] in a greenhouse. Yield of USU-Apogee was not significantly reduced by C2H4 but the yield of Super Dwarf was reduced by 60%. Elevated CO2 did not influence the sensitivity to C2H4. A difference in the C2H4 sensitivity of USU-Apogee between greenhouse and growth chamber trials suggests that C2H4 sensitivity is dependent on the environment. Collectively, the data suggest that relatively low levels of C2H4 could induce anomalous plant responses by accumulation in greenhouses and growth chambers with inadequate ventilation. The data also suggest that C2H4 sensitivity can be reduced by both genetic and environmental manipulations.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci2002.0746 pubmed: 14552359 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2135/cropsci2002.7460
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Trace gas concentration inside closed ecology experiment facilities

2002

T. Tani, R. Arai, Y. Tako

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

In order to obtain background data of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in plant growth chambers without plant present, VOCs in Closed Ecology Experiment Facility (CEEF) were analyzed. In the chamber without cultivation materials, VOCs such as alkanes (C2-C7), alkenes (C2-C4), cycloalkanes (C5-C7), alkylbenzenes (C6-C8), siloxanes, trichloromonofluoromethane, 2-butanone, methylisobutylketone, 2-methylpropylacetate, phenol, and tetrahydrofuran were accumulated. The highest concentrations were observed in alkylbenzenes (C6-C8), whose concentrations increased by 50-200 ppbv for 7 days closure. Concentrations of ethylene, 1, 2-dimethylcyclopropane, methylisobutylketone, and butyl acetate were greater in the chamber where cultivation materials were installed. Terpenes, isoprene, some kinds of aldehides, C9-C11 alkanes, carbon disulfide and dimethyl sulfide, which are known as biogenic VOCs, were not accumulated. This result indicates that biogenic emissions of VOCs except for ethylene can be measured in the closed chambers of CEEF. The result also suggests that a trace gas removal system should be operated to remove toxic VOCs such as alkylbenzenes.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku.14.1_23 link: http://jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JSTAGE/seitaikogaku/14.1_23?from=Google
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Performance of the Advanced ASTROCULTURETM plant growth unit during ISS-6A/7A mission

2002

W. Zhou, S.J. Durst, M. DeMars, B. Stankovic, B.M. Link, G. Tellez, R.A. Meyers, P.W. Sandstrom, J.R. Abba

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

With the help of Space Product Development Program at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, the Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics (WCSAR) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison has developed the Advanced ASTROCULTURE™ (ADVASC) plant growth unit, which is dedicated to conducting commercial or fundamental plant growth research on board the International Space Station (ISS). ADVASC provides an enclosed, environmentally controlled plant growth chamber with controlled parameters of temperature, relative humidity, light intensity, fluid nutrient delivery, and CO2 and hydrocarbon (ethylene) concentrations. Auto-prime technology eliminates the need for electrical power during Shuttle ascent/descent, and therefore greatly relieves the shortage of Shuttle resources and ISS crew time. State-of-the-art control software combined with fault tolerance and recovery algorithm significantly increases overall system robustness and efficiency. Tele-science features allow engineers and scientists to remotely receive telemetry data and video images, send remote commands, and monitor plant development status.
A two-month successful experiment, 5/10/01 - 7/19/01, of growing Arabidopsis thaliana from seed to seed during the ISS-6A/7A mission has demonstrated that ADVASC is capable of providing desired environmental conditions suitable for Arabidopsis growth and development in microgravity, and that ADVASC is able to autonomously maintain chamber environmental conditions without crew intervention, despite power interruptions.

doi: 10.4271/2002-01-2280 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2002-01-2280/
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Nitrogen assimilation and growth of wheat under elevated carbon dioxide

2002

Arnold J. Bloom,David R. Smart,Duy T. Nguyen,Peter S. Searles

publication: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

Abstract

Simultaneous measurements of CO(2) and O(2) fluxes from wheat (Triticum aestivum) shoots indicated that short-term exposures to elevated CO(2) concentrations diverted photosynthetic reductant from NO(3)(-) or NO(2)(-) reduction to CO(2) fixation. With longer exposures to elevated CO(2), wheat leaves showed a diminished capacity for NO(3)(-) photoassimilation at any CO(2) concentration. Moreover, high bicarbonate levels impeded NO(2)(-) translocation into chloroplasts isolated from wheat or pea leaves. These results support the hypothesis that elevated CO(2) inhibits NO(3)(-) photoassimilation. Accordingly, when wheat plants received NO(3)(-) rather than NH(4)(+) as a nitrogen source, CO(2) enhancement of shoot growth halved and CO(2) inhibition of shoot protein doubled. This result will likely have major implications for the ability of wheat to use NO(3)(-) as a nitrogen source under elevated CO(2).
doi: 10.1073/pnas.022627299 pubmed: 11818528 link: https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.022627299
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Mars inflatable greenhouse analog

2002

P.D. Sadler, G.A. Giacomelli

publication: Life support & biosphere science : international journal of earth space

Abstract

Light intensities on the Martian surface can possibly support a bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) utilizing natural sunlight for hydroponic crop production, if a suitable controlled environment can be provided. Inflatable clear membrane structures offer low mass, are more easily transported than a rigid structure, and are good candidates for providing a suitable controlled environment for crop production. Cable culture is one hydroponic growing system that can take advantage of the beneficial attributes of the inflatable structure. An analog of a Mars inflatable greenhouse can provide researchers data on issues such as crew time requirements for operation, productivity for BLSS, human factors, and much more at a reasonable cost. This is a description of one such design.
pubmed: 11987303 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/lsbs/2002/00000008/00000002/art00007
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Ethylene synthesis and sensitivity in crop plants

2002

Stephen P. Klassen,Bruce Bugbee

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Closed and semi-closed plant growth chambers have long been used in studies of plant and crop physiology. These studies include the measurement of photosynthesis and transpiration via photosynthetic gas exchange. Unfortunately, other gaseous products of plant metabolism can accumulate in these chambers and cause artifacts in the measurements. The most important of these gaseous byproducts is the plant hormone ethylene (C2H4). In spite of hundreds of manuscripts on ethylene, we still have a limited understanding of the synthesis rates throughout the plant life cycle. We also have a poor understanding of the sensitivity of intact, rapidly growing plants to ethylene. We know ethylene synthesis and sensitivity are influenced by both biotic and abiotic stresses, but such whole plant responses have not been accurately quantified. Here we present an overview of basic studies on ethylene synthesis and sensitivity.
pubmed: 15770791 link: https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cpl_nasa/1/
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Solubility and cation exchange properties of zeoponic substrates

2003

RE Beiersdorfer, DW Ming, C Galindo

publication: Microporous and Mesoporous Materials

Abstract

A zeoponic plant growth system is defined as the cultivation of plants in artificial soils, which have zeolites as a major component. Batch-equilibrium studies of zeoponic substrates indicate that the nutrients NH4–N (19.7–73.6 mg dm−3), P (0.57–14.99 mg dm−3), K (14.8–104.9 mg dm−3), and Mg (0.11–6.68 mg dm−3) are available to plants at sufficient levels. Solution Ca concentrations (0.47–3.40 mg dm−3) are less than optimal. Solution concentrations of NH4+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ all decreased with increasing clinoptilolite to hydroxyapatite ratio in the sample. Solution concentrations of phosphorus initially increased, reached a maximum value and then decreased with increasing clinoptilolite to hydroxyapatite ratio in the sample. The NH4+-exchanged clinoptilolite is more efficient in dissolving synthetic hydroxyapatite than the K+-exchanged clinoptilolite. The addition of calcite, dolomite or wollastonite to the zeoponic substrate resulted in an exponential decrease in solution P concentrations (from 15.05 to 1.49 mg dm−3). The exponential rate of decay was greatest for calcite (5.60 wt.%−1), intermediate for wollastonite (2.85 wt.%−1) and least for dolomite (1.58 wt.%−1). Additions of the three minerals resulted in linear increases in the solution Ca concentrations (from 0.51 to 2.47 mg dm−3). The rate of increase was greatest for calcite (3.64 mg dm−3 wt.%−1), intermediate for wollastonite (2.41 mg dm−3 wt.%−1) and least for dolomite (0.61 mg dm−3 wt.%−1). The observed changes in solution P and Ca concentrations are consistent with the solubilities of calcite, dolomite and wollastonite and with expected changes due to a common ion effect with Ca.
doi: 10.1016/S1387-1811(03)00372-X link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S138718110300372X
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Regulation of biomass partitioning in hydroponically-grown potato by altering nitrogen concentrations

2003

N.C. Yorio, G.D. Goins, R.M. Wheeler, G.W. Stutte

publication: SOCIETY OF AMERICA

Abstract

Potatoes have been grown hydroponically for a number of years as a crop as part of NASA’s Advanced Life Support systems research for long duration spaceflight or planetary habitation. However, a typical nutrient solution consisting of excess nitrogen (7.5 mM N) can result in excessive inedible biomass that may lower overall life support system efficiency. Three N management protocols were evaluated as a means of regulating excessive vegetative growth of potatoes. Tests included reduction of overall nutrients via electrical conductivity (EC) setpoint, reduction of only the nitrate, and providing a mixed-N (nitrate + ammonia) source. Additionally, each test included a phasic treatment in which the [N] was maintained at the control concentration (7.5 mM) for the first half of the test and then maintained at the lowest N treatment. The phasic treatments resulted in tuber yields comparable to control treatments. Reducing EC, nitrate, or using mixed-N resulted in lower tuber yields, but higher tuber N-use efficiency and significantly reduced vegetative growth and plant canopy were observed. Increasing plant density coupled with N management practices may be a feasible method to maintain high tuber yield while reducing vegetative biomass.
link: https://www.academia.edu/download/3954388/2003_pgrsa_proceedings.pdf#page=183
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Performance of the CELSS Antarctic Analog Project (CAAP) crop production system

2003

D.L. Bubenheim,G. Schlick,D. Wilson,M. Bates

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Regenerative life support systems potentially offer a level of self-sufficiency and a decrease in logistics and associated costs in support of space exploration and habitation missions. Current state-of-the-art in plant-based, regenerative life support requires resources in excess of allocation proposed for candidate mission scenarios. Feasibility thresholds have been identified for candidate exploration missions. The goal of this paper is to review recent advances in performance achieved in the CELSS Antarctic Analog Project (CAAP) in light of the likely resource constraints. A prototype CAAP crop production chamber has been constructed and operated at the Ames Research Center. The chamber includes a number of unique hardware and software components focused on attempts to increase production efficiency, increase energy efficiency, and control the flow of energy and mass through the system. Both single crop, batch production and continuous cultivation of mixed crops production studies have been completed. The crop productivity as well as engineering performance of the chamber are described. For each scenario, energy required and partitioned for lighting, cooling, pumping, fans, etc. is quantified. Crop production and the resulting lighting efficiency and energy conversion efficiencies are presented. In the mixed-crop scenario, with 27 different crops under cultivation, 17 m2 of crop area provided a mean of 515 g edible biomass per day (85% of the approximate 620 g required for one person). Enhanced engineering and crop production performance achieved with the CAAP chamber, compared with current state-of-the-art, places plant-based life support systems at the threshold of feasibility.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00738-x pubmed: 12580191 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311770200738X
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Effects of CO2 concentration and light intensity on photosynthesis of a rootless submerged plant, Ceratophyllum demersum L., used for aquatic food production in bioregenerative life support systems

2003

Y. Kitaya, T. Okayama, K. Murakami, T. Takeuchi

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

In addition to green microalgae, aquatic higher plants are likely to play an important role in aquatic food production modules in bioregenerative systems for producing feed for fish, converting CO2 to O2 and remedying water quality. In the present study, the effects of culture conditions on the net photosynthetic rate of a rootless submerged plant, Ceratophyllum demersum L., was investigated to determine the optimum culture conditions for maximal function of plants in food production modules including both aquatic plant culture and fish culture systems. The net photosynthetic rate in plants was determined by the increase in dissolved O2 concentrations in a closed vessel containing a plantlet and water. The water in the vessel was aerated sufficiently with a gas containing a known concentration of CO2 gas mixed with N2 gas before closing the vessel. The CO2 concentrations in the aerating gas ranged from 0.3 to 10 mmol mol−1. Photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) in the vessel ranged from 0 (dark) to 1.0 mmol M−2 s−1, which was controlled with a metal halide lamp. Temperature was kept at 28°C. The net photosynthetic rate increased with increasing PPFD levels and was saturated at 0.2 and 0.5 mmol m−2 s−1 PPFD under CO2 levels of 1.0 and 3.0 mmol mol−1, respectively. The net photosynthetic rate increased with increasing CO2 levels from 0.3 to 3.0 mmol mol−1 showing the maximum value, 75 nmolO2 gDW−1 s−1, at 2–3 mmol mol−1 CO2 and gradually decreased with increasing CO2 levels from 3.0 to 10 mmol mol−1. The results demonstrate that C. demersum could be an efficient CO2 to O2 converter under a 2.0 mmol mol−1 CO2 level and relatively low PPFD levels in aquatic food production modules.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(03)00113-3 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117703001133
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Sodium - A functional plant nutrient

2003

G. V. Subbarao,O. Ito,W. L. Berry,R. M. Wheeler

publication: Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences

Abstract

Plant scientists usually classify plant mineral nutrients based on the concept of “essentiality” defined by Arnon and Stout as those elements necessary to complete the life cycle of a plant. Certain other elements such as Na have a ubiquitous presence in soils and waters and are widely taken up and utilized by plants, but are not considered as plant nutrients because they do not meet the strict definition of “essentiality.” Sodium has a very specific function in the concentration of carbon dioxide in a limited number of C4 plants and thus is essential to these plants, but this in itself is insufficient to generalize that Na is essential for higher plants. The unique set of roles that Na can play in plant metabolism suggests that the basic concept of what comprises a plant nutrient should be reexamined. We contend that the class of plant mineral nutrients should be comprised not only of those elements necessary for completing the life cycle, but also those elements which promote maximal biomass yield and/or which reduce the requirement (critical level) of an essential element. We suggest that nutrients functioning in this latter manner should be termed “functional nutrients.” Thus plant mineral nutrients would be comprised of two major groups, “essential nutrients” and “functional nutrients.” We present an array of evidence and arguments to support the classification of Na as a “functional nutrient,” including its requirement for maximal biomass growth for many plants and its demonstrated ability to replace K in a number of ways, such as being an osmoticium for cell enlargement and as an accompanying cation for long-distance transport. Although in this paper we have only attempted to make the case for Na being a “functional nutrient,” other elements such as Si and Se may also confirm to the proposed category of “functional nutrients.”
doi: 10.1080/07352680390243495 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07352680390243495
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Spaceflight hardware for conducting plant growth experiments in space: The early years1960–2000

2003

D.M. Porterfield, G.S. Neichitailo, A.L. Mashinski, M.E. Musgrave

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The best strategy for supporting long-duration space missions is believed to be bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS). An integral part of a BLSS is a chamber supporting the growth of higher plants that would provide food, water, and atmosphere regeneration for the human crew. Such a chamber will have to be a complete plant growth system, capable of providing lighting, water, and nutrients to plants in microgravity. Other capabilities include temperature, humidity, and atmospheric gas composition controls. Many spaceflight experiments to date have utilized incomplete growth systems (typically having a hydration system but lacking lighting) to study tropic and metabolic changes in germinating seedlings and young plants. American, European, and Russian scientists have also developed a number of small complete plant growth systems for use in spaceflight research. Currently we are entering a new era of experimentation and hardware development as a result of long-term spaceflight opportunities available on the International Space Station. This is already impacting development of plant growth hardware. To take full advantage of these new opportunities and construct innovative systems, we must understand the results of past spaceflight experiments and the basic capabilities of the diverse plant growth systems that were used to conduct these experiments. The objective of this paper is to describe the most influential pieces of plant growth hardware that have been used for the purpose of conducting scientific experiments during the first 40 years of research.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00752-4 pubmed: 12578007 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007524
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Biogeochemistry of fluoride in a plant-solution system

2003

C. L. Mackowiak,P. R. Grossl,B. G. Bugbee

publication: Journal of environmental quality

Abstract

Fluoride (F-) pollutants can harm plants and the animals feeding on them. However, it is largely unknown how complexing and chelating agents affect F bioavailability. Two studies were conducted that measured F- bioavailability and uptake by rice (Oryza sativa L.). In the first study, rice was grown in solution culture (pH 5.0) with 0, 2, or 4 mM F- as KF to compare the interaction of F- with humic acid (HA) and with a conventional chelating agent, N-hydroxyethylenthylenediaminetriacetic acid (HEDTA). In the second study, F was supplied at 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mM KF with an additional 2 mM F- treatment containing solution Ca at 2x (2 mM Ca) the level used in the first study, to test the effect added Ca had on F- availability and uptake. Total biomass was greatest with HEDTA and F- < 1 mM. Leaf and stem F concentrations increased exponentially as solution F- increased linearly, with nearly no F partitioning into the seed. Results suggest that F was taken up as HF0 while F- uptake was likely restricted. Additionally, F- competed with HA for Ca, thus preventing the formation of Ca-HA flocculents. The addition of soluble Ca resulted in the precipitation of CaF2 solids on the root surface, as determined by tissue analysis and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.
doi: 10.2134/jeq2003.2230 pubmed: 14674546 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq2003.2230
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Earth applications of closed ecological systems: Relevance to the development of sustainability in our global biosphere

2003

M. Nelson,J. Allen,A. Ailing,W.F. Dempster,S. Silverstone

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The parallels between the challenges facing bioregenerative life support in artificial closed ecological systems and those in our global biosphere are striking. At the scale of the current global technosphere and expanding human population, it is increasingly obvious that the biosphere can no longer safely buffer and absorb technogenic and anthropogenic pollutants. The loss of biodiversity, reliance on non-renewable natural resources, and conversion of once wild ecosystems for human use with attendant desertification/soil erosion, has led to a shift of consciousness and the widespread call for sustainability of human activities. For researchers working on bioregenerative life support in closed systems, the small volumes and faster cycling times than in the Earth's biosphere make it starkly clear that systems must be designed to ensure renewal of water and atmosphere, nutrient recycling, production of healthy food, and safe environmental methods of maintaining technical systems. The development of technical systems that can be fully integrated and supportive of living systems is a harbinger of new perspectives as well as technologies in the global environment. In addition, closed system bioregenerative life support offers opportunities for public education and consciousness changing of how to live with our global biosphere.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(03)80011-X link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311770380011X
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Inverse temperature studies to reduce canopy growth of sweetpotato

2003

D. G. Mortley,C. K. Bonsi,W. A. Hill,C. E. Morris

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] cv TU-82-155 was grown in controlled environments to determine if inverse day/night temperatures could effectively control the height of the canopy without adversely affecting storage root yield. Plants were exposed to temperatures of 18/24, 24/18, 20/26, 26/20, 22/28, and 28/22°C (Experiment 1); 22/28 and the control 28/22°C (Experiment 2); and in Experiment 3, 28/22°C for the first 6-8 weeks of growth and then 22/28°C thereafter, and 22/28°C continuously. Storage root yield was either reduced by about 50% among plants grown under cool days and warm nights (Experiment 1), was similar to the control plants if plant population was increased (64 vs. 48 m-2, Experiment 2), or if cool days/warm night regimes were initiated 6-8 weeks after planting (Experiment 3). There was a substantial reduction in canopy growth (height) for inverted temperature treatments. For every 2 °C decrease there was a 3.1 cm decrease in canopy height. Canopy height was effectively controlled regardless of whether cool days/warm night regimes were initiated at planting or 6-8 weeks after planting. The reduction in storage root yields can be arrested if plant population is increased from 48 to 64 plants m-2 or if temperature treatments are initiated 6-8 weeks after planting.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2679 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2679/
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Baseline environmental testing of candidate salad crops with horticultural approaches and constraints typical of spaceflight

2003

Gregory D. Goins,Neil C. Yorio,Gary W. Stutte,Raymond M. Wheeler,John C. Sager

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The first spaceflight opportunities for Advanced Life Support (ALS) Project testing with plants will likely occur with missions on vehicles in Low Earth Orbit, such as the International Space Station (ISS). In these settings, plant production systems would likely be small chambers with limited electrical power. Such systems are adequate for salad-type crops that provide moderate quantities of fresh, flavorful foods to supplement the crew diet. Successful operation of salad crop systems in the space environment requires extensive ground-based testing with horticultural methodologies that meet expected mission constraints. At Kennedy Space Center, cultivars of radish, onion, and lettuce are being compared for performance under these “flight-like” conditions. This paper describes experimental protocols which are currently being implemented to collect response parameters to environmental conditions (i.e, expected temperature, CO2, and light levels) that might be encountered with plant chambers that are open to the ISS cabin environment. These experiments also include intercropping or “mixed cropping” tests with multiple species in a common root tray. The results of these tests will be used to assess future salad crop growing technology in a spaceflight setting.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2481 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2481/
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Development and evaluation of an advanced water-jacketed high intensity discharge lamp

2003

Gene A. Giacomelli,Randy Lane Paterson,Phil Sadler,Daniel J. Barta

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

During the period July 2001 to March 2002, the performance of a water-jacketed high intensity discharge lamp of advanced design was evaluated within a lamp test stand at The University of Arizona (UA), Controlled Environment Agriculture Center (CEAC) in Tucson, Arizona. The lamps and test stand system were developed by Mr. Phil Sadler of Sadler Machine Company, Tempe, Arizona, and supported by a Space Act Agreement between NASA-Johnson Space Center (JSC) and UA. The purpose was for long term testing of the prototype lamp and demonstration of an improved procedure for use of water-jacketed lamps for plant production within the close confines of controlled environment facilities envisioned by NASA within Bioregenerative Life Support Systems. The lamp test stand consisted of six, 400 watt water-cooled, high pressure sodium HID lamps, mounted within a framework. A nutrient delivery system consisting of nutrient film technique re-circulation troughs and a storage tank was also included, but plants grown in the system were not evaluated in this time period. The performance of the lamps was quantified in terms of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), and spectral irradiance during the 9-month testing period. In addition, an energy balance and a series of short term tests were completed on the lamp system. The lamps were operated on a 16 hour ‘on’ and 8 hour ‘off’ duty cycle each day. The total operation time for the lamps during the test period was 4208 hour. The following report describes a series of tests performed on the water-cooled high pressure sodium (HPS) lamp system.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2455 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2455/
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Monitoring the temporal variations of nitrate, potassium and manganese in sweetpotato hydroponic solution for space life support application

2003

Eiichi Ono,Kenneth A. Jordan,Joel L. Cuello

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The long-term hypothesis of this study is that the patterns in uptake of certain nutrient species in the hydroponic nutrient solution can serve as an early-warning stress detector for specific hydroponically grown crops. This is a two-part hypothesis: first, it posits that the time variation in the uptake of specific nutrient species under a given nutrient regime shows fairly reasonable regularity; and, second, it posits that deviations from such regularity actually correlate with the occurrence of certain plant stress. Addressing the first part of the hypothesis, the objective of the current study was to determine the temporal variations in the concentrations of nitrate, potassium, and manganese under the following four nutrient regimes used for sweetpotato hydroponics: standard or control, elevated nitrogen by ammonium, elevated nitrogen by nitrate, and elevated potassium conditions. The results showed that the variations in nitrate concentrations over time resulted in fairly reasonable r-squares, and thus fairly reasonable regularity, both for the standard solution and the doubled-N by nitrate treatment. The regularity of the variations over time is important since significant deviation from the regular pattern could suggest a condition of stress for the plant. The results also showed that for a given nutrient regime, one nutrient species might exhibit regularity of time variation while another nutrient species might not. In addition, the relative quickness in the uptake of manganese rendered it undesirable for comparing nutrient uptake patterns to decipher the occurrence of plant stress.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2683 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2683/
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Response of plant water status to reduced atmospheric pressure

2003

C. P. Chamberlain,M. A. Stasiak,M. A. Dixon

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Increased fascination with planetary exploration has stimulated the expansion of advanced life support studies focused on complete resource recycling. Essential for the proper functioning of a reduced pressure, Martian based, bioregenerative life support system is a complete understanding of plant water status and related plant physiology under hypobaric conditions. Reduced pressure studies at the Controlled Environment Systems Research Facility at the University of Guelph, Canada have measured and derived an empirical correction factor for the effect of pressure on the in situ stem psychrometer. This technique allows for the accurate assessment of plant water potential under reduced pressure conditions. Transpiration was measured gravimetrically and water potential was assessed using the in situ stem psychrometer, which was then corrected for the effect of both temperature and pressure. The calibration of the in situ stem psychrometer, empirical correction factor for pressure, and preliminary results will be discussed.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2677 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2677/
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Lada: ISS plant growth technology checkout

2003

Gail E. Bingham,T. Shane Topham,Alex Taylor,I. G. Podolsky,M. A. Levinskikh,V. N. Sychev

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Lada, a plant growth system developed jointly by the Space Dynamics Laboratory and the Institute of Biomedical Problems for long-term deployment on the International Space Station (ISS), was launched on a Progress vehicle in September 2002. Lada, named for the ancient Russian Goddess of Spring, uses design features and technology similar to the Svet greenhouse on the Mir orbital outpost. The Lada checkout experiment produced its first crop (a leafy vegetable — Mizuna [Brassica rapa cv. nipposinica]) during October and November. The crop was shared between the crew and researchers, with about half of the crop being returned on Soyuz. This paper presents checkout experiment results and initial crew-plant interactions.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2613 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2613/
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PRU, the next generation of space station plant research systems

2003

Jeffery C. Emmerich,Mark C. Lee,Robert C. Morrow,Thomas M. Crabb

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Based upon the development experience and flight heritage of the Biomass Production System, the Plant Research Unit embodies the next generation in the evolution of on-orbit plant research systems. The design focuses on providing the finest scientific instrument possible, as well as providing a sound platform to support future capabilities and enhancements. Performance advancements, modularity and robustness characterize the design. This new system will provide a field ready, highly reliable research tool.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2527 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2527/
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An advanced scheduling model for crop production in bio-regenerative advanced life support (ALS) systems

2003

Seza Orcun,Gary Blau,Joseph F. Pekny,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

In this work, a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model is developed for advanced scheduling of crop production in bio-regenerative ALS systems. The main objective of the model is to meet the edible biomass demand of the crew diet. In the meantime, it tries to minimize the variation in oxygen generated by crops via controlling planting areas and the planting timetable of the crops taking into account the variability in oxygen released by crops arising from different photoperiod requirements. The model tries to minimize the cost of regulating the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide within the tolerable range in the crew cabin. If, for example, there is excess oxygen in the crew cabin, then it should be removed at a cost, which may/should be different than re-supplying oxygen if there is a deficit. A similar scenario will apply for carbon dioxide. The model is also capable of keeping track of the loads of other key elements, including energy, humidity due to crop growth, etc., without taking them into account in deciding the schedule, as a first-cut model.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2358 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2358/
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An automated oxygen diffusion measurement system for porous media in microgravity

2003

Scott B. Jones,Gail E. Bingham,T. Shane Topham,Dani Or,Igor G. Podolsky,Oleg Strugov

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Liquid and gas exchange within a particulate plant-rooting medium is likely to be altered in a microgravity environment. A difference in gravitational force can result in significant offsets in control parameters developed on earth for optimum plant growth, due to the shift in hydrostatic water distribution. The experiment being developed will examine the effects of variable gravity on water distribution and gas diffusion. We are developing and testing an automated gas diffusion measurement system for use on the International Space Station (ISS). To allow comparison of μg and 1g conditions, gas diffusion cell designs were horizontally oriented to minimize gravitational effects using 1) a ‘thin rectangular profile’ cell and 2) a cylindrical cell design for flight. Electronic solenoid valves provide air and water flow control while pressure transducers measure water and substrate potential. Porous media water content is controlled using a porous membrane coupled with a metered pumping system. Diffusion measurements are made after purging two gas chambers separated by the porous medium with N2 and with atmospheric air (∼20% O2). The system allows continuous measurement of oxygen concentration for fitting the diffusion coefficient to measured data at a given water content set point. The entire measurement range includes 10 set points, which can be completed in a period of about 2 weeks. The LADA control system aboard ISS will provide control and monitoring capabilities for the ORZS system that will be launched to the ISS on a Russian Progress vehicle in 2005.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2612 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2612/
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Lada: ISS Plant Growth Technology Checkout.

2003

Gail E. Bingham,T. Shane Topham,Alex Taylor,I. G. Podolsky,M. A. Levinskikh,V. N. Sychev

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Lada, a plant growth system developed jointly by the Space Dynamics Laboratory and the Institute of Biomedical Problems for long-term deployment on the International Space Station (ISS), was launched on a Progress vehicle in September 2002. Lada, named for the ancient Russian Goddess of Spring, uses design features and technology similar to the Svet greenhouse on the Mir orbital outpost. The Lada checkout experiment produced its first crop (a leafy vegetable — Mizuna [Brassica rapa cv. nipposinica]) during October and November. The crop was shared between the crew and researchers, with about half of the crop being returned on Soyuz. This paper presents checkout experiment results and initial crew-plant interactions.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2613 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2613/
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Development of plant growth guide and light distribution system

2003

Yas Takashima

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Food Production systems to be used in space exploration must be very efficient in mass, weight and energy. We normally accept natural plant growth habits and design a growing system to accommodate their growth. Selection of dwarf varieties and faster growing varieties may contribute to increased efficiency but dwarf plants are not usually very productive. If the plant growth habit was altered in such a manner so that the growing density increases without sacrificing productivity, greater efficiency can be achieved. Our Automatic Growing and Harvest System (AGHS) has the capability of self-propagating, auto-growing and auto-harvesting. Presently, new modifications are being made to double the growing density by dividing the existing growth chamber to two separate chambers so that two plants can be grown. A Dual Pinch Roller Driver mechanism has to be built as a part of the modification. But the growth guide and light distribution system had to be developed first to determine the (Pinch Roller) plant spacing. Experiments were conducted to manipulate the growth direction of the foliage so that the growing compartment can be minimized thus maintaining high productivity. Monocot plants usually have higher efficiency in photosynthesis mainly due to its growth characteristics allowing better light penetration without shading other foliage. It is more difficult for dicot plants to have even light distribution.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2458 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2458/
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Growth and development of Arabidopsis thaliana under hypobaric conditions

2003

Youki Arai,Eiji Goto,Kenji Omasa

publication: Uchu Seibutsu Kagaku

Abstract

In the present study, we examined carbohydrate contents of Arabidopsis thaliana seeds during seed development under hypobaric conditions in order to characterize the mechanism of low pressure-induced seed damage, and to determine critical pressures for seed development under low total and/or low oxygen partial pressures. We analyzed contents of starch, sucrose, glucose, and fructose in seeds at different developmental stages at 101 kPa total pressure with 21 kPa O2 partial pressure (control conditions), and at various low pressure conditions (23 kPa Ptot/21 kPa pO2, 101 kPa Ptot/2 kPa pO2, 53 kPa Ptot/2 kPa pO2, 23 kPa Ptot/2 kPa pO2, 12 kPa Ptot/10 kPa pO2, and 12 kPa Ptot/2 kPa pO2). Our results indicate that maintaining an adequate oxygen partial pressure inside the siliques is necessary for seed production under hypobaric conditions.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2478 pubmed: 14676410 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2478/
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Matching of gas metabolism among crop community, human and animal in the CEEF

2003

Yasuhiro Tako,Go Honda,Osam Komatsubara,Masanori Shinohara,Ryuji Arai,Keiji Nitta

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Rating of daily amounts of CO2 and O2 exchange of crops, animals and humans to be involved in the long-term habitation experiments using the Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF) were carried out. Daily amounts of the CO2-absorption and O2-generation of crops including rice, soybeans and other 27 vegetables were estimated from data obtained from a sequential crop cultivation experiment conducted from August to December of FY2001. Daily amounts of O2-consumption and CO2-expiration of two female Shiba goats to be involved were estimated based on gas exchange determination conducted in FY2002. Daily amounts of CO2-expiration and O2-consumption of two persons to be involved were estimated based on correlation between respiration rate and heart rate, heart rate data during the simulated habitation in the CEEF and a tentative work schedule. In order to discuss about whole material circulation, it is necessary to accumulate more data on rates of O2-consumption and CO2-generation of the waste processors and those on performance of the Sabatier O2 recovery system, in addition to those on biological systems.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2452 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2452/
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Modelling and trade studies of integrated production in bioregenerative life support systems

2003

Geoffrey C.R. Waters,Danuta Gidzinski,Youbin Zheng,Michael Stasiak,Michael Dixon

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

This study investigates the impacts of staged planting on the apparent quantum yield of beet stands. Experiments were conducted with both staged and batch planted beet in full canopy sealed environment chambers under fixed environmental (light, CO2, temperature) conditions. Empirical results indicated a higher average apparent quantum yield than that of the batch planted stand. Observed increases in quantum yield were used to simulate the joint effects of a range of additional daily labour requirements associated with staged scenarios and changes in crop production cost. The implications of these findings on bioregenerative system and physico-chemical system tradeoff are discussed.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2359 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2359/
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Evaluation of a pulse fertilization strategy for the cultivation of plants in space

2003

Howard G. Levine,Donna T. Rouzan,Joey H. Norikane

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The recycling of water will be critical for the successful long-term cultivation of plants in space. The capture of transpired water via humidity control systems and subsequent refilling of water reservoirs feeding into plant nutrient delivery systems is an approach that accomplishes this objective, but results in a progressive dilution of the nutrient levels initially present. As part of pre-spaceflight protocol development efforts for the Water Offset Nutrient Delivery ExpeRiment (WONDER), we have evaluated the reestablishment of reservoir nutrient concentration levels via the periodic injection of 60 and 90 mL pulses of concentrated (10x) Hoaglands nutrient solution. In space this will involve crew-facilitated injections via a quick disconnect port on the payload's front panel. A study demonstrating the efficacy of this approach is presented using wheat grown on porous tubes.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2615 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2615/
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Advanced photocatalytic ethylene degradation technology to support plant research in the enclosed environment

2003

W. Zhou,W. Zeltner,R. Meyers

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Conducting research to assess the impact of microgravity environment on plant growth and development requires a research facility that has the capability to provide an enclosed, environmentally controlled plant chamber. Since plants are sensitive to a number of atmospheric gaseous materials, the chamber atmosphere must be isolated from the space vehicles' atmosphere, which typically contains high levels of CO2 and other trace contaminants and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can be detrimental to the plant growth. However, an enclosed chamber may result in a high concentration of ethylene, a potent hormone produced by the plants, which can accumulate to levels well above what plants are able to adapt to. The physiological effects of excessive ethylene on plant development include severe interruption of the pollen process and significant reduction of seed production. Hence, the enclosed plant research unit must be capable of removing the ethylene to assure healthy plant growth and development. The Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics (WCSAR) at the University of Wisconsin Madison has recently developed an enhanced ethylene scrubber using a thin-film coated photocatalyst and homogeneous surface configuration. Comparisons between this new design and the previous version using particulate catalyst show a fundamental difference in photocatalytic behavior and reaction rate, especially under significantly elevated relative humidity in the test chamber. Since the photocatalytic material is not consumed during the oxidization process, this technology is particularly suitable for long-term space-based operations where the supply of consumable materials becomes a challenge.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2610 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2610/
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Biologically treated wastewater for NFT plant production in space

2003

Adriana Begeer,Andrew Jackson,Audra Morse

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

This research compared the nutrient content of the Biological Water Processor (BWP) effluent at JSC with acceptable nutrient ranges for general hydroponic NFT-solutions. Evaluated nutrient-components were NO3-N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Cu and Mo. Compared to Cooper's and Molyneaux's solution (Jones, 1997) BWP-nutrient concentrations were low for Ca, Mg, Fe and B. Compared to the NFT-solution used at KSC (Wheeler et al., 1997), the BWP-effluent showed higher contents of P, K, Zn, Cu and Mo and lower contents of N, Ca, Mg, Fe and B. This indicates that the BWP-effluent could support NFT-plant production.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2681 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2681/
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Gas diffusion measurement and modeling in coarse-textured porous media

2003

S. B. Jones,D. Or,G. E. Bingham

publication: Vadose Zone Journal

Abstract

Conventional gas diffusion measurements in coarse-textured and aggregated porous media are severely limited due to hydrostatically induced variations in water content and air-filled porosity. Motivated by the need to measure gas diffusion in coarse-textured plant growth media designed for use in microgravity (e.g., aboard the International Space Station), our objectives were (i) to develop and test an automated diffusion measurement system on earth with water content adjustment capability and that minimizes hydrostatic effects, and (ii) to model characteristics of gas diffusion in partially saturated aggregated porous media. The horizontally oriented O2 diffusion cell design for reducing the gravitational effect was based on a thin profile rectangular cell. Continuous measurement of O2 in sealed dual-chamber diffusion cells provided concentration data for fitting diffusion coefficients where water content was controlled volumetrically using a porous membrane with an imposed pressure for incremental addition or removal of water. Gas diffusion was modeled as a function of air-filled porosity in millimeter-sized aggregated particles exhibiting a substantial difference between internal and external aggregate pore sizes. For this case, the internal aggregate porosity contribution to diffusion compared with external aggregate pore space was minor as described by a dual-porosity diffusion model. The measurement approach described can be used in other coarse-textured and structured porous media.
doi: 10.2136/vzj2003.6020 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/vzj2003.6020
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Integrated multicropping of beet and lettuce and its effect on atmospheric stability

2003

Michael Stasiak,Geoffrey Waters,Youbin Zheng,Bernard Grodzinski,Michael Dixon

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

It is understood that plants and microorganisms will be an intrinsic part of future advanced life support (ALS) systems. The photosynthetic process is uniquely able to provide food and water from transpiration, remove carbon dioxide, and produce oxygen. However, atmospheric management with typical monoculture batch plant growth is made difficult due to fluctuating rates of CO2 assimilation and O2 production during different phases of plant growth and development. Experiments on the effect of continuous production of multiple crops with rotational planting on atmospheric stability within a sealed environment were performed in the Controlled Environment Systems Research Facility ambient pressure controlled environment chambers. Two of the ESA-MELiSSA candidate crops, beet and lettuce, were continuously grown with a ten day staggered planting interval, resulting in a plant canopy with all representative stages of physiological growth within a common atmosphere. The data will be discussed with respect to improving atmospheric stability during long-term crop production in advanced life support systems for the manned space program.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2357 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2357/
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Predictive modeling of labor requirements for preparation of a "bioregenerative" diet

2003

Jean B. Hunter,Janet S. C. Tang,Rupert Spies

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Food preparation labor, minimal for the individually packaged food system used on ISS, represents a significant allocation of crew time in a bulk-packaged or bioregenerative food system. Direct measurements of active preparation time for individual dishes are insufficient to construct accurate estimates of food preparation labor costs when “cooking ahead” and “planned leftovers” strategies are employed, because active food preparation labor is not proportional to the number of servings of food prepared.
Food preparation time was modeled as a function of batch size, based on the principle of fixed time requirements for quantity-independent preparation tasks and fixed plus marginal time requirements for quantity-dependent tasks. Videotapes of food preparation operations were used to measure the average duration of tasks such as measuring and stirring which are roughly independent of the amount of material processed. The videotape data also provided estimates of transit times between workstations in the kitchen, and dead time as a fraction of total recipe preparation time. The video data was supplemented with separately collected processing-rate data for manual cooking operations such as peeling and trimming. Labor times in each case were measured for experienced household cooks without substantial culinary arts training.
The model was validated by comparison with videotape data. Extrapolation of preparation time to crew sizes of 12-24 demonstrates significant economies of scale in food preparation for larger groups.

doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2542 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2542/
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Ultrastructure of potato tubers formed in microgravity under controlled environmental conditions

2003

Martha E. Cook,Judith G. Croxdale

publication: Journal of experimental botany

Abstract

Previous spaceflight reports attribute changes in plant ultrastructure to microgravity, but it was thought that the changes might result from growth in uncontrolled environments during spaceflight. To test this possibility, potato explants were examined (a leaf, axillary bud, and small stem segment) grown in the ASTROCULTURETM plant growth unit, which provided a controlled environment. During the 16 d flight of space shuttle Columbia (STS-73), the axillary bud of each explant developed into a mature tuber. Upon return to Earth, tuber slices were examined by transmission electron microscopy. Results showed that the cell ultrastructure of flight-grown tubers could not be distinguished from that of tuber cells grown in the same growth unit on the ground. No differences were observed in cellular features such as protein crystals, plastids with starch grains, mitochondria, rough ER, or plasmodesmata. Cell wall structure, including underlying microtubules, was typical of ground-grown plants. Because cell walls of tubers formed in space were not required to provide support against the force due to gravity, it was hypothesized that these walls might exhibit differences in wall components as compared with walls formed in Earth-grown tubers. Wall components were immunolocalized at the TEM level using monoclonal antibodies JIM 5 and JIM 7, which recognize epitopes of pectins, molecules thought to contribute to wall rigidity and cell adhesion. No difference in presence, abundance or distribution of these pectin epitopes was seen between space- and Earth-grown tubers. This evidence indicates that for the parameters studied, microgravity does not affect the cellular structure of plants grown under controlled environmental conditions.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/erg218 pubmed: 12867548 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/54/390/2157/606440
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Light intensity and production parameters of phytocenoses cultivated on soil-like substrate under controled environment conditions

2003

A.A. Tikhomirov,S.A. Ushakova,I.A. Gribovskaya,L.S. Tirranen,N.S. Manukovsky,I.G. Zolotukhin,R.A. Karnachuk,J.-B. Gros,Ch. Lasseur

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

To increase the degree of closure of biological life support systems of a new generation, we used vermicomposting to involve inedible phytomass in the intra-system mass exchange. The resulting product was a soil-like substrate, which was quite suitable for growing plants (Manukovsky et al. 1996, 1997). However, the soil like substrate can be regarded as a candidate for inclusion in a system only after a comprehensive examination of its physical, chemical, and other characteristics. An important criterion is the ability of the soil-like substrate to supply the necessary mineral elements to the photosynthesizing component under the chosen cultivation conditions. Thus, the purpose of this work was to study the feasibility of enhancing the production activity of wheat and radish crops by varying the intensity of photosynthetically active radiation, without decreasing the harvest index. The increase of light intensity from 920 to 1150 micromoles m-2 s-1 decreased the intensity of apparent photosynthesis of the wheat crops and slightly increased the apparent photosynthesis of the radish crops The maximum total and grain productivity (kg/m2) of the wheat crops was attained at the irradiance of 920 micromoles m-2 s-1. Light intensity of 1150 micromoles m-2 s-1 decreased the productivity of wheat plants and had no significant effect on the productivity of the radish crops (kg/m2) as compared to 920 micromoles m-2 s-1. The qualitative and quantitative composition of microflora of the watering solution and substrate was determined by the condition of plants, developmental phase and light intensity. By the end of wheat growth under 1150 micromoles m-2 s-1 the numbers of bacteria of the coliform family and phytopathogenic bacteria in the watering solution and substrate were an order of magnitude larger than under other illumination conditions. The obtained data suggest that the cultivation of plants in a life support system on soil-like substrate from composts has a number of advantages over the cultivation on neutral substrates, which require continual replenishment of the plant nutrient solution from the system's store to complement the macro- and micro-elements. Yet, a number of problems arise, including those related to the controlling of the production activity of the plants by the intensity of photosynthetically active radiation. It is essential to understand why the intensity of production processes is limited at higher irradiation levels and to overcome the factors responsible for this, so that the soil-like substrate could have an even better chance in the competition for the best plant cultivation technology to be used in biological life support systems.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(03)80020-0 pubmed: 14503517 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117703800200
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An Advanced Scheduling Model for Crop Production in Bio-Regenerative Advanced Life Support (ALS) Systems

2003

Seza Orcun,Gary Blau,Joseph F. Pekny,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

In this work, a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model is developed for advanced scheduling of crop production in bio-regenerative ALS systems. The main objective of the model is to meet the edible biomass demand of the crew diet. In the meantime, it tries to minimize the variation in oxygen generated by crops via controlling planting areas and the planting timetable of the crops taking into account the variability in oxygen released by crops arising from different photoperiod requirements. The model tries to minimize the cost of regulating the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide within the tolerable range in the crew cabin. If, for example, there is excess oxygen in the crew cabin, then it should be removed at a cost, which may/should be different than re-supplying oxygen if there is a deficit. A similar scenario will apply for carbon dioxide. The model is also capable of keeping track of the loads of other key elements, including energy, humidity due to crop growth, etc., without taking them into account in deciding the schedule, as a first-cut model.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2358 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2358/
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Fluid behavior under microgravity conditions within plant nutrient delivery systems: Parabolic flight investigations

2003

Howard G. Levine,Georgiana K. Tynes,Joey H. Norikane

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

We report here on a series of KC-135 parabolic flight studies investigating various aspects of water distribution in plant nutrient delivery systems being developed for spaceflight applications. Several types of porous tubes were evaluated. Under microgravity conditions, fluid was observed to creep up the end walls of polycarbonate substrate compartments. Capillary mats wrapped around the porous tubes wetted up in a uniform fashion regardless of the level of gravity to which they were being exposed, and they were found to eliminate the end-wall creep wetting-up pattern. Results from observations using 1-2 mm glass beads and 1-2 mm Turface substrates are presented. The Turface’s absorption of water effectively minimized fluid redistribution as the compartment alternated between microgravity and 1-1.8g conditions.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2483 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2483/
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Aquatic modules for bioregenerative life support systems: Developmental aspects based on the space flight results of the C.E.B.A.S. mini-module

2003

V. Blüm

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) is an artificial aquatic ecosystem which contains teleost fishes, water snails, ammonia oxidizing bacteria and edible non-gravitropic water plants. It serves as a model for aquatic food production modules which are not seriously affected by microgravity and other space conditions. Its space flight version, the so-called C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE was already successfully tested in the STS-89 and STS-90 (NEUROLAB) missions. It will be flown a third time in space with the STS-107 mission in January 2003. All results obtained so far in space indicate that the basic concept of the system is more than suitable to drive forward its development. The C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE is located within a middeck locker with limited space for additional components. These technical limitations allow only some modifications which lead to a maximum experiment time span of 120 days which is not long enough for scientifically essential multi-generation-experiments. The first necessary step is the development of "harvesting devices" for the different organisms. In the limited space of the plant bioreactor a high biomass production leads to self-shadowing effects which results in an uncontrolled degradation and increased oxygen consumption by microorganisms which will endanger the fishes and snails. It was shown already that the latter reproduce excellently in space and that the reproductive functions of the fish species are not affected. Although the parent-offspring-cannibalism of the ovoviviparous fish species (Xiphophorus helleri) serves as a regulating factor in population dynamics an uncontrolled snail reproduction will also induce an increased oxygen consumption per se and a high ammonia concentration in the water. If harvesting locks can be handled by astronauts in, e. g., 4-week intervals their construction is not very difficult and basic technical solutions are already developed. The second problem is the feeding of the animals. Although C.E.B.A.S.-based aquaculture modules are designed to be closed food loop systems (edible herbivorous fish species and edible water plants) which are already verified on Earth this will not be possible in space without devices in which the animals are fed from a food storage. This has to be done at least once daily which would waste too much crew time when done by astronauts. So, the development of a reliable automated food dispenser has highest priority. Also in this case basic technical solutions are already elaborated. The paper gives a comprehensive overview of the proposed further C.E.B.A.S.-based development of longer-term duration aquatic food production modules.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(03)80015-7 pubmed: 14503506 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117703800157
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Mass exchange in an experimental new-generation life support system model based on biological regeneration of environment

2003

A.A. Tikhomirov,S.A. Ushakova,N.S. Manukovsky,G.M. Lisovsky,Yu.A. Kudenko,V.S. Kovalev,V.G. Gubanov,Yu.V. Barkhatov,I.V. Gribovskaya,I.G. Zolotukhin,J.B Gros,Ch. Lasseur

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

An experimental model of a biological life support system was used to evaluate qualitative and quantitative parameters of the internal mass exchange. The photosynthesizing unit included the higher plant component (wheat and radish), and the heterotrophic unit consisted of a soil-like substrate, California warms, mushrooms and microbial microflora. The gas mass exchange involved evolution of oxygen by the photosynthesizing component and its uptake by the heterotroph component along with the formation and maintaining of the SLS structure, growth of mushrooms and California worms, human respiration, and some other processes. Human presence in the system in the form of “virtual human” that at regular intervals took part in the respirative gas exchange during the experiment. Experimental data demonstrated good oxygen/carbon dioxide balance, and the closure of the cycles of these gases was almost complete. The water cycle was nearly 100% closed. The main components in the water mass exchange were transpiration water and the watering solution with mineral elements. Human consumption of the edible plant biomass (grains and roots) was simulated by processing these products by a unique physicochemical method of oxidizing them to inorganic mineral compounds, which were then returned into the system and fully assimilated by the plants. The oxidation was achieved by “wet combustion” of organic biomass, using hydrogen peroxide following a special procedure, which does not require high temperature and pressure. Hydrogen peroxide is produced from the water inside the system. The closure of the cycle was estimated for individual elements and compounds. Stoichiometric proportions are given for the main components included in the experimental model of the system. Approaches to the mathematical modeling of the cycling processes are discussed, using the data of the experimental model. Nitrogen, as a representative of biogmic elements, shows an almost 100% closure of the cycle inside the system. The proposed experimental model of a biological system is discussed as a candidate for potential application in the investigations aimed at creating ecosystems with largely closed cycles of the internal mass exchange. The formation and maintenance of sustainable cycling of vitally important chemical elements and compounds in biological life support systems (BLSS) is an extremely pressing problem. To attain the stable functioning of biological life support systems (BLSS) and to maintain a high degree of closure of material cycles in than, it is essential to understand the character of mass exchange processes and stoichiometnc proportions of the initial and synthesized components of the system.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(03)80017-0 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117703800170
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Short-term and long-term effects of low total pressure on gas exchange rates of spinach

2003

K. Iwabuchi,K. Kurata

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

In this study, spinach plants were grown under atmospheric and low pressure conditions with constant O2 and CO2 partial pressures, and the effects of low total pressure on gas exchange rates were investigated. CO2 assimilation and transpiration rates of spinach grown under atmospheric pressure increased after short-term exposure to low total pressure due to the enhancement of leaf conductance. However, gas exchange rates of plants grown at 25 kPa total pressure were not greater than those grown at atmospheric pressure. Stomatal pore length and width were significantly smaller in leaves grown at low total pressure. This result suggested that gas exchange rates of plants grown under low total pressure were not stimulated even with the enhancement of gas diffusion because the stomatal size and stomatal aperture decreased.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00743-3 pubmed: 12580188 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007433
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Effects of variable gravity on porous media matric potential and water content measurements

2003

J.H. Norikane, S.B. Jones, S.L. Steinberg, H.G. Levine, D. Or

publication: 2003 ASAE Annual Meeting

Abstract

Control of water and air in the root zone of plants remains a challenge in microgravity. Due to limited flight opportunities research aimed at resolving fluid dynamics in microgravity porous media must often be conducted on earth. KC135 flight offers an opportunity for earth-based researchers to study physical processes in a variable gravity environment. The objectives of this study were to obtain measurements of water content and matric potential during the parabolic profile flown by the KC135 aircraft. The flight profile was designed to give 20-25 seconds of microgravity at the top of the parabola, while pulling 1.8-g at the bottom. Temperature and Moisture Acquisition Sensors (TMAS; Orbital Technologies, Madison, WI) use a heat-pulse method to measure water content. Tensiometers were constructed using a porous membrane with a pressure transducer and were used to measure matric potential. The two types of sensors were placed at different depths in a substrate compartment filled with 1-2 mm Turface (calcined clay). The TMAS sensors were unable to monitor bulk changes in water content in the substrate compartment, but were able to track local moisture changes in the soil profile. There were differences in water content data recorded at zero-, one-, and 1.8-g, but these were not significant. Tensiometer readings tracked pressure differences due to the hydrostatic force changes with variable gravity. The readings may have been affected by changes in cabin air pressure that occurred during each parabola. Tensiometer porous membrane conductivity (function of pore size) and fluid volume both influence response time. Porous media sample height and water content influence time-to-equilibrium, where shorter samples and higher water content achieve faster equilibrium. Further testing is needed to develop these sensors for space flight applications.
doi: 10.13031/2013.13874 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=13874
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A new relative referencing method for crop monitoring using chlorophyll fluorescence

2003

J. Norikane,E. Goto,K. Kurata,T. Takakura

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The measurement of plant chlorophyll fluorescence has been used for many years as a method to monitor a plant's health status. These types of methods have been mostly relegated to the laboratory. The newly developed Relative Referencing Method allows for the measurement of chlorophyll fluorescence under artificial lighting conditions. The fluorescence signal can be determined by first taking a reference signal measurement, then a second measurement with an additional fluorescence excitation source. The first signal can then be subtracted from the second and the plant's chlorophyll fluorescence due to the second lighting source can be determined. With this simple approach, a photosynthesizing plant can be monitored to detect signs of water stress. Using this approach experiments on tomato plants have shown that it was possible to detect water stress, while the plants were continuously illuminated by fluorescent lamps. This method is a promising tool for the remote monitoring of crops grown in a CELSS-type application.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00746-9 pubmed: 12580189 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007469
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An alternative approach to solar system exploration providing safety of human mission to Mars

2003

J.I. Gitelson,S.I. Bartsev,V.V. Mezhevikin,V.A. Okhonin

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

For systematic human Mars exploration, meeting crew safety requirements, it seems perspective to assemble into a spacecraft: an electrical rocket, a well-shielded long-term life support system, and a manipulator-robots operating in combined "presence effect" and "master-slave" mode. The electrical spacecraft would carry humans to the orbit of Mars, providing short distance (and low signal time delay) between operator and robot-manipulators, which are landed on the surface of the planet. Long-term hybrid biological and physical/chemical LSS could provide environment supporting human health and well being. Robot-manipulators operating in "presence effect" and "master-slave" mode exclude necessity of human landing on Martian surface decreasing the level of risk for crew. Since crewmen would not have direct contact with the Martian environment then the problem of mutual biological protection is essentially reduced. Lightweight robot-manipulators, without heavy life support systems and without the necessity of returning to the mother vessel, could be sent as scouts to different places on the planet surface, scanning the most interesting for exobiological research site. Some approximate estimations of electric spacecraft, long-term hybrid LSS, radiation protection and mission parameters are conducted and discussed.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00657-9 pubmed: 12577896 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702006579
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Design, testing and operation of porous media for dehumdificaiton and nutrient delivery in microgravity plant growth systems

2003

A. Hoehn, P. Scovazzo, J. Clawson, T. Geissinger, W. Kalinowshi, J. Pineau

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Porous plate dehumidifiers (PPD) and porous tube nutrient delivery systems (PTNDS) are designed to provide a means for accurate environmental control, and also allow for two-phase flow separation in microgravity through surface tension. The technological challenges associated with these systems arise from the requirement to accurately measure and control the very small pressures that typically occur within and across the porous media. On-orbit automated priming or filling of the system in the absence of gravity may be necessary. Several porous plate dehumidifiers and porous tube nutrient delivery systems have been tested and evaluated, and experimental results for engineering design are presented.
doi: 10.4271/2003-01-2614 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2003-01-2614/
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Consideration of design for life support systems

2003

Akira Ashida

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

During the design phase for construction of artificial ecosystems, the following considerations are important. (1) Influences on living things in the ecosystem, such as lifestyles and physiological functions caused by stresses due to environmental changes. The long stay in the artificial ecosystem has a possibility to lead to evolutional change in the living things. (2) The system operation method in trouble, which relates to maintainability. (3) The system metamorphosis according to new technologies. (4) Route minimization of material flow that leads to an optimum system layout.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(03)00079-6 pubmed: 14503521 link: https://incose.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/1520-6858(200033)3:3%3C113::AID-SYS1%3E3.0.CO;2-9
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Effect of hypobaric conditions on ethylene Eevolution and growth of lettuce and wheat

2003

C.-J. He, F.T. Davies, R.E. Lacey, M.C. Drew, D.L. Brown

publication: Journal of Plant Physiology

Abstract

Elevated levels of ethylene occur in enclosed crop production systems and in spaceflight environments, leading to adverse plant growth and sterility. There are engineering advantages in growing plants at hypobaric (reduced atmospheric pressure) conditions in biomass production for extraterrestrial base or spaceflight environments. Objectives of this research were to characterize the influence of hypobaria on growth and ethylene evolution of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Plants were grown under variable total gas pressures [from 30 to 101 kPa (ambient)]. In one study, lettuce and wheat were direct seeded, germinated and grown in the same chambers for 28 d at 50 or 101 kPa. Hypobaria increased plant growth and did not alter germination rate. During a 10-day study, 28-day-old lettuce and 40-day-old wheat seedlings were transplanted together in the same low and ambient pressure chambers; ethylene accumulated in the chambers, but the rate of production by both lettuce and wheat was reduced more than 65 percnt; under 30 kPa compared with ambient pressure (101 kPa). Low O2 concentrations [partial pressure of O2 (pO2) = 6.2 kPa] inhibited ethylene production by lettuce under both low (30 kPa) and ambient pressure, whereas ethylene production by wheat was inhibited at low pressure but not low O2 concentration. There was a negative linear correlation between increasing ethylene concentration and decreasing chlorophyll content of lettuce and wheat. Lettuce had higher production of ethylene and showed greater sensitivity to ethylene than wheat. The hypobaric effect on reduced ethylene production was greater than that of just hypoxia (low oxygen).
doi: 10.1078/0176-1617-01106 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S017616170470526X
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Carbon balance in bioregenerative life support systems: Effects of system closure, waste management, and crop harvest index

2003

Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

In Advanced Life Support (ALS) systems with bioregenerative components, plant photosynthesis would be used to produce O2 and food, while removing CO2. Much of the plant biomass would be inedible and hence must be considered in waste management. This waste could be oxidized (e.g., incinerated or aerobically digested) to resupply CO2 to the plants, but this would not be needed unless the system were highly closed with regard to food. For example, in a partially closed system where some of the food is grown and some is imported, CO2 from oxidized waste when combined with crew and microbial respiration could exceed the CO2 removal capability of the plants. Moreover, it would consume some O2 produced from photosynthesis that could have been used by the crew. For partially closed systems it would be more appropriate to store or find other uses for the inedible biomass and excess carbon, such as generating soils or growing woody plants (e.g., dwarf fruit trees). Regardless of system closure, high harvest crops (i.e., crops with a high edible to total biomass ratio) would increase food production per unit area and O2 yields for systems where waste biomass is oxidized to recycle CO2. Such interlinking effects between the plants and waste treatment strategies point out the importance of oxidizing only that amount of waste needed to optimize system performance.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00742-1 pubmed: 12578002 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007421
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Manmade closed ecological systems

2003

I.I. Gitelson, G.M. Lisovsky, R.D. MacElroy

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Providing a broad historical perspective, this book explores the interactions between humans, microorganisms, and plants in a closed habitat, and the life support systems necessary to ...
link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vxnV-2k6z2wC&oi=fnd&pg=PP9&dq=Manmade+closed+ecologic...
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Initial closed operation of the CELSS test facility engineering development unit

2003

M. Kliss,C. Blackwell,A. Zografos,M. Drews,R. MacElroy,R. McKenna,A.G. Heyenga

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

As part of the NASA Advanced Life Support Flight Program, a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) Test Facility Engineering Development Unit has been constructed and is undergoing initial operational testing at NASA Ames Research Center. The Engineering Development Unit (EDU) is a tightly closed, stringently controlled, ground-based testbed which provides a broad range of environmental conditions under which a variety of CELSS higher plant crops can be grown. Although the EDU was developed primarily to provide near-term engineering data and a realistic determination of the subsystem and system requirements necessary for the fabrication of a comparable flight unit, the EDU has also provided a means to evaluate plant crop productivity and physiology under controlled conditions. This paper describes the initial closed operational testing of the EDU, with emphasis on the hardware performance capabilities. Measured performance data during a 28-day closed operation period are compared with the specified functional requirements, and an example of inferring crop growth parameters from the test data is presented. Plans for future science and technology testing are also discussed.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00753-6 pubmed: 12580194 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007536
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Effects of air current speed on gas exchange in plant leaves and plant canopies

2003

Y. Kitaya,J. Tsuruyama,T. Shibuya,M. Yoshida,M. Kiyota

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

To obtain basic data on adequate air circulation to enhance plant growth in a closed plant culture system in a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS), an investigation was made of the effects of the air current speed ranging from 0.01 to 1.0 m s-1 on photosynthesis and transpiration in sweetpotato leaves and photosynthesis in tomato seedlings canopies. The gas exchange rates in leaves and canopies were determined by using a chamber method with an infrared gas analyzer. The net photosynthetic rate and the transpiration rate increased significantly as the air current speeds increased from 0.01 to 0.2 m s-1. The transpiration rate increased gradually at air current speeds ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 m s-1 while the net photosynthetic rate was almost constant at air current speeds ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 m s-1. The increase in the net photosynthetic and transpiration rates were strongly dependent on decreased boundary-layer resistances against gas diffusion. The net photosynthetic rate of the plant canopy was doubled by an increased air current speed from 0.1 to 1.0 m s-1 above the plant canopy. The results demonstrate the importance of air movement around plants for enhancing the gas exchange in the leaf, especially in plant canopies in the CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00747-0 pubmed: 12578005 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007470
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Possible applications of aquatic bioregenerative life support modules for food production in a Martian base

2003

V. Bluem,F. Paris

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Water is the essential precondition of life in general and also for the establishment of a Martian base suitable for long duration stays of humans. It is not yet proven if there is indeed a "frozen ocean" under the surface of Mars but if this could be verified it would open innovative aspects for the construction of bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS). In a general concept higher plants will play the predominant role in a Martian BLSS. It is not clear, however, how these will grow and bring seed in reduced gravity and there may be differences in the productivity in comparison to Earth conditions. Therefore, organisms which are already adapted to low gravity conditions, namely non-gravitropic aquatic plants and also aquatic animals may be used to enhance the functionality of the Martian BLSS as a whole. It has been shown already with the so-called C.E.B.A.S. MINIMODULE in the STS-89 and STS-90 spaceshuttle missions that the water plant Ceratophyllum demersum has an undisturbed and high biomass production under space conditions. Moreover, the teleost fish species Xiphophorus helleri adapted easily to the micro-g environment and maintained its normal reproductive functions. Based on this findings a possible scenario is presented in which aquatic plant production modules and combined animal-plant production systems may be used for human food production and water and air regeneration in a Martian base.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00659-2 pubmed: 12577939 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702006592
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Plant growth during the greenhouse II experiment on the Mir orbital station

2003

F.B. Salisbury,W.F. Campbell,J.G. Carman,G.E. Bingham,D.L. Bubenheim,B. Yendler,V. Sytchev,M.A. Levinskikh,I. Ivanova,L. Chernova,I. Podolsky

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

We carried out three experiments with Super Dwarf wheat in the Bulgarian/Russian growth chamber Svet (0.1 m2 growing area) on the Space Station Mir. This paper mostly describes the first of these NASA-supported trials, began on Aug. 13, 1995. Plants were sampled five times and harvested on Nov. 9 after 90 days. Equipment failures led to low irradiance (3, then 4 of 6 lamp sets failed), instances of high temperatures (ca. 37 degrees C), and sometimes excessive substrate moisture. Although plants grew for the 90 d, no wheat heads were produced. Considering the low light levels, plants were surprisingly green, but of course biomass production was low. Plants were highly disoriented (low light, mirror walls?). Fixed and dried samples and the root module were returned on the U.S. Shuttle Atlantis on Nov. 20, 1995. Samples of the substrate, a nutrient-charged zeolite called Balkanine, were taken from the root module, carefully examined for roots, weighed, dried, and reweighed. The Svet control unit and the light bank were shipped to Moscow. An experiment validation test (EVT) of plant growth and experimental procedures, carried out in Moscow, was highly successful. Equipment built in Utah to measure CO2, H2O vapor, irradiance, air and leaf (IR) temperature, O2, pressure, and substrate moisture worked well in the EVT and in space. After this manuscript was first prepared, plants were grown in Mir with a new light bank and controller for 123 d in late 1996 and 39 days in 1996/1997. Plants grew exceptionally well with higher biomass production than in any previous space experiment, but the ca. 280 wheat heads that were produced in 1996 contained no seeds. Ethylene in the cabin atmosphere was responsible.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00744-5 pubmed: 12580179 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007445
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Synthesis of biomass and utilization of plants wastes in a physical model of biological life-support system

2003

A.A. Tikhomirov,S.A. Ushakova,N.S. Manukovsky,G.M. Lisovsky,Yu.A. Kudenko,V.S. Kovalev,I.V. Gribovskaya,L.S. Tirranen,I.G. Zolotukhin,J.B. Gros,Ch. Lasseur

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

The paper considers problems of biosynthesis of higher plants' biomass and “biological incineration” of plant wastes in a working physical model of biological LSS. The plant wastes are “biologically incinerated” in a special heterotrophic block involving Californian worms, mushrooms and straw. The block processes plant wastes (straw, haulms) to produce soil-like substrate (SLS) on which plants (wheat, radish) are grown. Gas exchange in such a system consists of respiratory gas exchange of SLS and photosynthesis and respiration of plants. Specifics of gas exchange dynamics of high plants — SLS complex has been considered. Relationship between such a gas exchange and PAR irradiance and age of plants has been established. Nitrogen and iron were found to the first to limit plants' growth on SLS when process conditions are deranged. The SLS microflora has been found to have different kinds of ammonifying and denitrifying bacteria which is indicative of intensive transformation of nitrogen-containing compounds. The number of physiological groups of microorganisms in SLS was, on the whole, steady. As a result, organic substances — products of exchange of plants and microorganisms were not accumulated in the medium, but mineralized and assimilated by the biocenosis. Experiments showed that the developed model of a man-made ecosystem realized complete utilization of plant wastes and involved them into the intrasystem turnover.
doi: 10.1016/S0094-5765(03)80002-4 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576503800024
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Seed to seed growth of Arabidopsis thaliana on the International Space Station

2003

B.M. Link,S.J. Durst,W. Zhou,B. Stankovic

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) as a permanent experimental outpost has provided the opportunity for quality plant research in space. To take advantage of this orbital laboratory, engineers and scientists at the Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics (WCSAR), University of Wisconsin-Madison, developed a plant growth facility capable of supporting plant growth in the microgravity environment. Utilizing this Advanced Astroculture (ADVASC) plant growth facility, an experiment was conducted with the objective to grow Arabidopsis thaliana plants from seed-to-seed on the ISS. Dry Arabidopsis seeds were anchored in the root tray of the ADVASC growth chamber. These seeds were successfully germinated from May 10 until the end of June 2001. Arabidopsis plants grew and completed a full life cycle in microgravity. This experiment demonstrated that ADVASC is capable of providing environment conditions suitable for plant growth and development in microgravity. The normal progression through the life cycle,. as well as the postflight morphometric analyses, demonstrate that Arabidopsis thaliana does not require the presence of gravity for growth and development.
doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(03)00250-3 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117703002503
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Induced abnormality in Mir- and earth grown super dwarf wheat

2003

D.L. Bubenheim,J. Stieber,W.F. Campbell,F.B. Salisbury,M. Levinski,V. Sytchev,I. Pdolsky,L. Chernova

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Super-dwarf wheat grown on the Mir space station using the Svet "Greenhouse" exhibited morphological, metabolic and reproductive abnormalities compared with Earth-grown wheat. Of prominent importance were the abnormalities associated with reproductive ontogeny and the total absence of seed formation on Mir. Changes in the apical meristem associated with transition from the vegetative phase to floral initiation and development of the reproductive spike were all typical of 'Super-Dwarf' wheat up to the point of anthesis. Observation of ruptured anthers from the Mir-grown plants revealed what appeared to be normally developed pollen. These pollen gains, however, contained only one nuclei, while normal viable pollen is tri-nucleate. A potentially important difference in the flight experiment, compared with ground reference studies, was the presence of a high level of atmospheric ethylene (1,200 ppb). Ground studies conducted by exposing 'Super-Dwarf' wheat to ethylene just prior to anthesis resulted in manifestation of the same abnormalities observed in the space flight samples.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00745-7 pubmed: 12580182 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007457
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Spaceflight hardware for conducting plant growth experiments in space: The early years 1960–2000

2003

D.M. Porterfield,G.S. Neichitailo,A.L. Mashinski,M.E. Musgrave

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The best strategy for supporting long-duration space missions is believed to be bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS). An integral part of a BLSS is a chamber supporting the growth of higher plants that would provide food, water, and atmosphere regeneration for the human crew. Such a chamber will have to be a complete plant growth system, capable of providing lighting, water, and nutrients to plants in microgravity. Other capabilities include temperature, humidity, and atmospheric gas composition controls. Many spaceflight experiments to date have utilized incomplete growth systems (typically having a hydration system but lacking lighting) to study tropic and metabolic changes in germinating seedlings and young plants. American, European, and Russian scientists have also developed a number of small complete plant growth systems for use in spaceflight research. Currently we are entering a new era of experimentation and hardware development as a result of long-term spaceflight opportunities available on the International Space Station. This is already impacting development of plant growth hardware. To take full advantage of these new opportunities and construct innovative systems, we must understand the results of past spaceflight experiments and the basic capabilities of the diverse plant growth systems that were used to conduct these experiments. The objective of this paper is to describe the most influential pieces of plant growth hardware that have been used for the purpose of conducting scientific experiments during the first 40 years of research.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00752-4 pubmed: 12578007 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007524
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Biodegradation pathway of an anionic surfactant (Igepon TC-42) during recycling waste water through plant hydroponics for advanced life support during long-duration space missions

2003

L.H Levine,H.R Kagie,J.L Garland

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The degradation of an anionic surfactant (Igepon TC-42) was investigated as part of an integrated study of direct recycling of human hygiene water through hydroponic plant growth systems. Several chemical approaches were developed to characterize the degradation of Igepon and to measure the accumulation of intermediates such as fatty acids and methyl taurine. Igepon was rapidly degraded as indicated by the reduction of methylene blue active substances (MBAS) and component fatty acids. The Igepon degradation rate continued to increase over a period of several weeks following repeated daily exposure to 18 micrograms/l Igepon. The accumulation of free fatty acids and methyl taurine was also observed during decomposition of Igepon. The concentration of methyl taurine was below detection limit (0.2 nmol/ml) during the slow phase of Igepon degradation, and increased to 1-2 nmol/ml during the phase of rapid degradation. These findings support a degradation pathway involving initial hydrolysis of amide to release fatty acids and methyl taurine, and subsequent degradation of these intermediates.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00748-2 pubmed: 12580190 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007482
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Farming in space: Environmental and biophysical concerns

2003

O Monje,G.W Stutte,G.D Goins,D.M Porterfield,G.E Bingham

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The colonization of space will depend on our ability to routinely provide for the metabolic needs (oxygen, water, and food) of a crew with minimal re-supply from Earth. On Earth, these functions are facilitated by the cultivation of plant crops, thus it is important to develop plant-based food production systems to sustain the presence of mankind in space. Farming practices on earth have evolved for thousands of years to meet both the demands of an ever-increasing population and the availability of scarce resources, and now these practices must adapt to accommodate the effects of global warming. Similar challenges are expected when earth-based agricultural practices are adapted for space-based agriculture. A key variable in space is gravity; planets (e.g. Mars, 1/3 g) and moons (e.g. Earth's moon, 1/6 g) differ from spacecraft orbiting the Earth (e.g. Space stations) or orbital transfer vehicles that are subject to microgravity. The movement of heat, water vapor, CO2 and O2 between plant surfaces and their environment is also affected by gravity. In microgravity, these processes may also be affected by reduced mass transport and thicker boundary layers around plant organs caused by the absence of buoyancy dependent convective transport. Future space farmers will have to adapt their practices to accommodate microgravity, high and low extremes in ambient temperatures, reduced atmospheric pressures, atmospheres containing high volatile organic carbon contents, and elevated to super-elevated CO2 concentrations. Farming in space must also be carried out within power-, volume-, and mass-limited life support systems and must share resources with manned crews. Improved lighting and sensor technologies will have to be developed and tested for use in space. These developments should also help make crop production in terrestrial controlled environments (plant growth chambers and greenhouses) more efficient and, therefore, make these alternative agricultural systems more economically feasible food production systems.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00751-2 pubmed: 12577999 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007512
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Pigment composition and concentrations within the plant (Ceratophyllum demersum L.) component of the STS-89 C.E.B.S.A. mini-module spaceflight experiment

2003

D. Voeste,L.H. Levine,H.G. Levine,V. Blüm

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) Mini-Module, a Space Shuttle middeck locker payload which supports a variety of aquatic inhabitants (fish, snails, plants and bacteria) in an enclosed 8.6 L chamber, was tested for its biological stability in microgravity. The aquatic plant, Ceratophyllum demersum L., was critical for the vitality and functioning of this artificial mini-ecosystem. Its photosynthetic pigment concentrations were of interest due to their light harvesting and protective functions. "Post-flight" chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations within Ceratophyllum apical segments were directly related to the quantities of light received in the experiments, with microgravity exposure (STS-89) failing to account for any significant deviation from ground control studies.
doi: 10.1016/s0273-1177(02)00740-8 pubmed: 12580173 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117702007408
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Examination of aeroponics for plant experiments under microgravity conditions

2003

E. Goto, J. Tsujimura, H. Takahashi, Y. Kitaya, T. Saito, A. Tani

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

This paper discusses the feasibility of the application of aeroponics (mist culture) for plant experiments in space. An aeroponics system was tested using parabolic flights where approximately 20 seconds of continuous microgravity of 0.01∼0.04 g could be simulated. The system consisted of a controlled environment root zone container, a solution tank, solution colored red, a pump with a spray nozzle, and two CCD cameras. Solution through the nozzle was sprayed on roots of Pisum sativum L. and Hordeum vulgare L. at the beginning of microgravity and the motion of solution moisture was recorded by the cameras. The moisture was held at the root surface by surface tension and did not fall during microgravity. The result indicated that aeroponics could be a potential nutrient solution delivery system for plant experiments in space.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku.15.27 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku/15/1/15_1_27/_article/-char/en
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Development of Technology and experimental designs for plant growth studies in space

2003

H.G. Levine, J.H. Norikane, D.T. Rouzan, M.D. Best, T. Murdoch, K. Burtness

publication: unknown

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Influence of nitrogen nutrition management on biomass partitioning and nitrogen use efficiency in hydroponically-grown potato

2004

Gregory D. Goins,Neil C. Yorio,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has been conducting controlled environment research with potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) in recirculating nutrient film technique (NFT)-hydroponic systems as a human life support component during long-duration spaceflight. Standard nutrient solution management approaches include constant pH regulation with nitric acid (HNO3) and daily adjustment of electrical conductivity (EC) equivalent to half-strength modified Hoagland's solution, where nitrate (NO3-) is the sole nitrogen (N) source. Although tuber yields have been excellent with such an approach, N use efficiency indices are expected to be low relative to tuber biomass production. Furthermore, the high amount of N used in NFT-hydroponics, typically results in high inedible biomass, which conflicts with the need to minimize system mass, volume, and expenditure of resources for long-duration missions. More effective strategies of N fertilization need to be developed to more closely match N supply with demand of the crop. Hence, the primary objective of this study was to identify the optimal N management regime and plant N requirement to achieve high yields and to avoid inefficient use of N and excess inedible biomass production. In separate 84-day cropping experiments, three N management protocols were tested. Treatments which decreased NO3(-)-N supply indirectly through lowering nutrient solution EC (Expt. I), or disabling pH control, and/or supplying NH4(+)-N (Expt. III) did not significantly benefit tuber yield, but did influence N use efficiency indices. When supplied with an external 7.5 mM NO3(-)-N for the first 42 days after planting (DAP), lowered to 1.0 mM NO3(-)-N during the final 42 days (Expt. II), plants were able to achieve yields on par with plants which received constant 7.5 mM NO3(-)-N (control). By abruptly decreasing N supply at tuber initiation in Expt. II, less N was taken up and accumulated by plants compared to those which received high constant N (control). However, proportionately more plant accumulated N was used (N use efficiency) to produce tuber biomass when N supply was abruptly lowered at tuber initiation in Expt. II. Hence, a hydroponic nutrient solution N management system may be modified to elicit greater plant N-use while maintaining overall high tuber yield as opposed to achieving high tuber yields through excess N supply and shoot growth.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.129.1.0134 pubmed: 15880890 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ray-Wheeler-2/publication/7859995_Influence_of_Nitrogen_Nutr...
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Engineering concepts for inflatable Mars surface greenhouses

2004

I. Hublitz,D.L. Henninger,B.G. Drake,P. Eckart

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

A major challenge of designing a bioregenerative life support system for Mars is the reduction of the mass, volume, power, thermal and crew-time requirements. Structural mass of the greenhouse could be saved by operating the greenhouse at low atmospheric pressure. This paper investigates the feasibility of this concept. The method of equivalent system mass is used to compare greenhouses operated at high atmospheric pressure to greenhouses operated at low pressure for three different lighting methods: natural, artificial and hybrid lighting.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2004.06.002 pubmed: 15846884 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117704006258
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Application of a biochemical model of photosynthesis for the simulation of CO2 exchange of crop population in the closed plantation experiment facility

2004

T. Tani, Y. Tako, K. Nitta

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

To predict carbon exchange rates of crop populations cultivated in the closed plantation experiment facility (CPEF), it is necessary to simulate the response of photosynthesis to changes in environmental conditions. We examined whether photosynthetic responses of a soybean population to changes in environmental conditions could be predicted by a biochemical photosynthesis model treating a canopy of the population as a single layer, i.e. as a ‘big leaf’. Soybean populations were cultivated under three sets of growth conditions for atmospheric CO2 partial pressure and daytime air temperature: 35, 70, and 70 Pa, and 24, 24, and 26°C, respectively. When light-photosynthesis curves of the three soybean populations were predicted using maximum electron transport rates (Jmax) and respiration rates (R) per unit cultivation area obtained from their respective growth conditions, predicted light-photosynthesis curves matched measured photosynthetic responses to short-term changes in photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), i.e. to stepwise increases in PAR at an interval of two hours. On the other hand, changes in light-photosynthesis curves to changes in the growth conditions lasting more than one month were not accurately predicted by the model, since Jmax per unit leaf area differed among the growth conditions. We concluded that the biochemical photosynthesis model could be used to predict photosynthetic responses of crop populations in the CPEF to environmental changes on the time scale of hours since photosynthetic acclimation would not occur in response to such environmental changes.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku.16.53 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku/16/1/16_1_53/_article/-char/ja/
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Induction of hypoxic root metabolism results from physical limitations in O2 bioavailability in microgravity

2004

J.G.Liu Liao, O. Monje, G.W. Stutte, D.M. Porterfield

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Numerous spaceflight experiments have noted changes in the roots that are consistent with hypoxia in the root zone. These observations include general ultrastructure analysis and biochemical measurements to direct measurements of stress specific enzymes. In experiments that have monitored alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), the data shows this hypoxically responsive gene is induced and is associated with increased ADH activity in microgravity. These changes in ADH could be induced either by spaceflight hypoxia resulting from inhibition of gravity mediated O2 transport, or by a non-specific stress response due to inhibition of gravisensing. We tested these hypotheses in a series of two experiments. The objective of the first experiment was to determine if physical changes in gravity-mediated O2 transport can be directly measured, while the second series of experiments tested whether disruption of gravisensing can induce a non-specific ADH response. To directly measure O2 bioavailability as a function of gravity, we designed a sensor that mimics metabolic oxygen consumption in the rhizosphere. Because of these criteria, the sensor is sensitive to any changes in root O2 bioavailability that may occur in microgravity. In a KC-135 experiment, the sensor was implanted in a moist granular clay media and exposed to microgravity during parabolic flight. The resulting data indicated that root O2 bioavailability decreased in phase with gravity. In experiments that tested for non-specific induction of ADH, we compared the response of transgenic Arabidopsis plants (ADH promoted GUS marker gene) exposed to clinostat, control, and waterlogged conditions. The plants were grown on agar slats in a growth chamber before being exposed to the experimental treatments. The plants were stained for GUS activity localization, and subjected to biochemical tests for ADH, and GUS enzyme activity. These tests showed that the waterlogging treatment induced significant increases in GUS and ADH enzyme activities, while the control and clinostat treatments showed no response. This work demonstrates: (1) the inhibition of gravity-driven convective transport can reduce the O2 bioavailability to the root tip, and (2) the perturbation of gravisensing by clinostat rotation does not induce a nonspecific stress response involving ADH. Together these experiments support the microgravity convection inhibition model for explaining changes in root metabolism during spaceflight.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2004.02.002 pubmed: 15880895 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117704001309
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Evaluating and optimizing horticultural regimes in space plant growth facilities

2004

Y.A. Berkovich,P.V. Chetirkin,R.M. Wheeler,J.C. Sager

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

In designing innovative space plant growth facilities (SPGF) for long duration space flight, various limitations must be addressed including onboard resources: volume, energy consumption, heat transfer and crew labor expenditure. The required accuracy in evaluating on board resources by using the equivalent mass methodology and applying it to the design of such facilities is not precise. This is due to the uncertainty of the structure and not completely understanding the properties of all associated hardware, including the technology in these systems. We present a simple criteria of optimization for horticultural regimes in SPGF: Qmax = max [M x (EBI)2/(V x E x T], where M is the crop harvest in terms of total dry biomass in the plant growth system; EBI is the edible biomass index (harvest index), V is volume occupied by the crop; E is the crop light energy supply during growth; T is the crop growth duration. The criterion reflects directly on the consumption of onboard resources for crop production.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2003.08.080 pubmed: 15880901 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117704007197
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Horticulture for Mars

2004

Angelo C.J. Vermeulen,Coen Hubers,Liselotte de Vries,Frances Brazier

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A comparison of growth and photosynthetic characteristics of lettuce grown under red and blue LEDs with and without supplemental green LEDs

2004

H.-H. Kim,R.M. Wheeler,J.C. Sager,G.D. Goins

publication: VII International Symposium on Protected Cultivation in Mild Winter Climates: Production, Pest Management and Global Competition

Abstract

Plants could be an important aspect of future space missions. Lighting systems for plant growth chambers will need to be lightweight, reliable, and durable, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have these characteristics. Previous studies demonstrated the combination of red and blue LEDs as an effective light source for several crops. The addition of green supplemental lighting offers a psychological benefit for the crew, since most plant leaves would appear green and normal similar to a natural setting under white light. The addition of green light could offer more benefits, since green light can better penetrate the plant canopy and potentially increase plant growth by increasing photosynthesis from the lower canopy leaves. In this study, lettuce plants grown under red and blue LEDs were compared to plants given an additional 5 % (6 µmol m-2 s-1) of green light. Light and CO2 photosynthesis response curves were measured along with other physiological parameters, and there was no significant difference between the treatments. Future studies will examine higher levels of supplemental green light. The use of green light would be beneficial, since it did not impact plant growth, it provides useful photosynthetically active radiation once it is absorbed, and the plants would appear green and healthy to the crews on space mission.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.659.62 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/659/659_62.htm
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Greenhouse design for the Mars environment: Development of a prototype deployable dome

2004

R.A. Bucklin,P.A. Fowler,V.Y. Rygalov,R.M. Wheeler,Y. Mu,I. Hublitz,E.G. Wilkerson

publication: VII International Symposium on Protected Cultivation in Mild Winter Climates: Production, Pest Management and Global Competition

Abstract

Concepts for landing missions on Mars often include greenhouse structures for plant production. The types of structures proposed vary from small automatically deployed structures for research purposes to larger structures that would be used for food production. Present plans are that greenhouses on Mars will be operated at internal pressures as low as 0.1 to 0.2 Earth atmospheres. Low internal pressures permit the use of structures with lower mass, but complicate the heat and mass transfer processes involved in maintaining a suitable environment for plant growth and raise questions about the requirements of plants for growth at low pressures. Results are given from preliminary tests of lettuce growth at 25 kPa.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.659.15 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/659/659_15.htm
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Automated systems for oxygen diffusion measurements in porous media at 1g and 0g

2004

Scott B. Jones,Dani Or,Gail E. Bingham,T. Shane Topham

publication: Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Challenging Environments: Earth and Space 2004

Abstract

Liquid and gas exchange within a porous medium is likely to be altered in a microgravity environment. A difference in gravitational force can result in significant offsets in the water distribution in porous substrates such as plant growth media, due to the shift in hydrostatic force. The automated gas diffusion measurement systems being developed will examine the effects of variable gravity on water distribution and gas diffusion on Earth and on the International Space Station (ISS). The automated system will interface with the LADA control module currently on the ISS. To allow comparison of μg and 1g conditions, gas diffusion cell designs were horizontally oriented to minimize gravitational effects using a `thin rectangular profile' cell for 1g and a cylindrical cell design for flight. Electronic solenoid valves provide air and water flow control while pressure transducers measure water and substrate potential. Porous media water content is controlled using a porous membrane coupled with a metered pumping system. Diffusion measurements are made after purging two gas chambers separated by the porous medium with N2 and with atmospheric air. Continuous measurements of oxygen in sealed dual-chamber diffusion cells provided concentration data for fitting diffusion coefficients where water content was controlled by imposing a low matric suction in the porous media (in the range of 0 to 30 cm). The system will be launched to the ISS on a Russian Progress vehicle in 2005.
doi: 10.1061/40722(153)52 link: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/40722(153)52
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Night temperature has a minimal effect on respiration and growth in rapidly growing plants

2004

J. M. FRANTZ

publication: Annals of botany

Abstract

Carbon gain depends on efficient photosynthesis and adequate respiration. The effect of temperature on photosynthetic efficiency is well understood. In contrast, the temperature response of respiration is based almost entirely on short-term (hours) measurements in mature organisms to develop Q(10) values for maintenance and whole-plant respiration. These Q(10) values are then used to extrapolate across whole life cycles to predict the influence of temperature on plant growth.
doi: 10.1093/aob/mch122 pubmed: 15159217 link: https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-abstract/94/1/155/223241
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Effects of common ISS volatile organic compounds on growth of radish

2004

G. W. Stutte,I. Eraso,P. A. Fowler

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

Radish ( Raphanus sativus L.) is a salad type crop that is being evaluated for possible use on the International Space Station (ISS). The study will determine the growth and development of radish in the microgravity environment. A series of experiments were initiated to determine whether volatile organic compounds (VOC) that are commonly accumulated in closed systems of spacecraft atmosphere are biologically active. A survey of existing atmospheric samples from the space shuttle and ISS revealed over 260 compounds with potential biogenic activity of which a subset of 14 compounds have been selected for detailed evaluation. Initial screening is achieved by exposing radishes to VOC concentrations corresponding to 0.1 and 1.0 the Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentration (SMAC) of the contaminants. Biogenic effects of ethanol at 0.1 of the SMAC resulted in lower chlorophyll content, reduced growth rate, and lower yields. Chronic exposure to ethanol concentrations at 0.5 SMAC were lethal to radish. Radishes exposed to acetone did not show phytotoxic responses at concentrations up to the SMAC.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44737902
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Static mass balance studies of the MELISSA pilot plant: integration of the higher plant chamber

2004

Geoffrey C. R. Waters,Michael A. Dixon,Alexandra Masot,Joan Albiol,Francesc Gòdia

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

This paper presents results generated from an EXCEL based static mass balance model for the incorporation of a higher plant chamber to the MELiSSA Pilot Plant. The model was parameterized using empirical data collected from beet and lettuce production trials and from trials conducted with Pilot Plant or bench scaled MELiSSA compartments. Of particular interest were the daily mass balances of CO2, O2 and nitrogen in the loop for a given set of input variables. The results allow the loop’s designers to foresee the range of conditions for which closure of the mass balances can be expected. This information will be used in the next phases of the MELISSA Pilot Plant integration project.
doi: 10.4271/2004-01-2579 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2004-01-2579/
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Elevated carbon dioxide alters hydrocarbon emission and flavor in onion

2004

P. W. Paré,R. Jasoni,E. Peffley,C. Green,L. Thompson,D. Tissue

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Bulb onion (Allium cepa), non-bulbing Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), common chives (A. schoenoprasum) and garlic chives (A. tuberosum) have markedly different harvest indices. With the onset of bulbing, leaf production ceases, photosynthates are reallocated to the bulb, lowering production of new shoots and crop canopy. Successive harvests from the same planting allow for a cumulative harvest index. In testing the influence of growing plants under different CO2 conditions, a set of volatile methyl-ketones have been identified from onion that are emitted at higher levels when plants are grown at elevated CO2 compared to controls grown at ambient CO2 levels. Sensory panel taste testing has indicated differences in flavor for some cultivars when comparisons were made between plants grown at ambient and elevated CO2 conditions. In future studies we will examine if thiosulfinates generated from the enzymatic conversion of alk(en)yl cysteine sulphoxides contribute to flavor differences detected between ambient and elevated CO2 grown plants.
doi: 10.4271/2004-01-2299 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2004-01-2299/
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Accuracy of a point source thermal soil moisture sensor for space flight nutrient delivery systems

2004

Jessica J. Prenger,Susan L. Steinberg,Daniel Haddock,Joey H. Norikane,Howard G. Levine

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The WONDER space flight experiment will compare the operation of both substrate-based and porous tube nutrient delivery systems (NDS) under microgravity conditions. Each NDS will be evaluated with three moisture availability regimes, and moisture sensing will be critical for the operation and evaluation of the systems. Orbital Technologies (Madison, WI) has developed a space flight-rated temperature and moisture acquisition system (TMAS) for measuring water content of plant growth medium. The sensors were evaluated in 0.25-1 mm and 1-2 mm baked ceramic aggregate (Profile and Turface, respectively). The sensors' pooled standard deviations ranged from approximately 2% to 5% relative water content (RWC), and root mean square error between sensor RWC and measured RWC was greater than 3% using linear calibration.
doi: 10.4271/2004-01-2456 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2004-01-2456/
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Prototype space mission SEBAC biological solid waste management system

2004

Arthur A. Teixeira,David P. Chynoweth,John M. Owens,Elana Rich,Amy L. Dedrick,Patrick J. Haley

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

This paper reports on fabrication, installation, start-up and shakedown of a full-scale prototype solid waste management system designed to be a principal component in a bio-regenerative solid waste management system to support a 6-person crew on long-term space missions. System design is based upon a patented process for odorless bioconversion of organic solid wastes to biogas and compost by anaerobic digestion. The system consists of five reactors and two gas-liquid separators designed for operation under conditions of micro-gravity. During any week of operation, one reactor is used for feed collection and compaction, three for stage-wise anaerobic composting, and one for post-treatment aerobic stabilization, while simultaneously serving as a bio-filter in the pretreatment of cabin air within the air revitalization subsystem. Each reactor carries its one-week charge of feedstock through all five stages of bioconversion in completing a five-week sequential batch cycle. Preliminary operating performance for the anaerobic stages is presented, along with plans for further design improvement and integration with other ALS subsystems.
doi: 10.4271/2004-01-2466 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2004-01-2466/
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Effects of lighting intensity and supplemental CO2 on yield of potential salad crops for ISS

2004

Jeffrey T. Richards,Sharon L. Edney,Neil C. Yorio,Gary W. Stutte,Nathan Cranston,Raymond M. Wheeler,Gregory D. Goins

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Radish (Raphanus sativus L.), green onion (Allium fistulosum L.), and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) are among several “salad” crop species suggested for use on the International Space Station (ISS) as a supplement to the crew’s diet. Among the more important factors affecting the crop yields will be the light intensity or photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) used to grow the plants. Radish (cv. Cherry Bomb), green onion (cv. Kinka), and lettuce (cv. Flandria) plants were grown for 35 days in growth chambers at 8.6, 17.2, and 26 mol m−2 d−1 (150, 300, or 450 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF, respectively) with a 16 hr photoperiod and cool-white fluorescent lamps and either 400 or 1200 μmol mol−1 CO2. Final (35-day) edible yields were taken for the treatments under ambient or supplemented CO2. Results showed a response of growth to incident PPF that indicated a strong influence of lighting on yields. Additionally, increasing CO2 from 400 to 1200 μmol mol−1 significantly increased the overall edible fresh weight of these species, which would be important for settings such as ISS.
doi: 10.4271/2004-01-2296 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2004-01-2296/
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Stomatal of lettuce grown under or exposed to different light qualities

2004

H.-H. KIM

publication: Annals of botany

Abstract

The objective of this research was to examine the effects of differences in light spectrum on the stomatal conductance (Gs) and dry matter production of lettuce plants grown under a day/night cycle with different spectra, and also the effects on Gs of short-term exposure to different spectra.
doi: 10.1093/aob/mch192 pubmed: 15347557 link: https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-abstract/94/5/691/151928
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Advanced life support project: Crop experiments at Kennedy Space Center

2004

J.C. Sager, G.W. Stutte, R.M. Wheeler, N.C. Yorio

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Crop production systems provide bioregenerative technologies to complement human crew life support requirements on long duration space missions. Kennedy Space Center has lead NASA's research on crop production systems that produce high value fresh foods, provide atmospheric regeneration, and perform water processing. As the emphasis on early missions to Mars has developed, our research focused on modular, scalable systems for transit missions, which can be developed into larger autonomous, bioregenerative systems for subsequent surface missions. Components of these scalable systems will include development of efficient light generating or collecting technologies, low mass plant growth chambers, and capability to operate in the high energy background radiation and reduced atmospheric pressures of space. These systems will be integrated with air, water, and thermal subsystems in an operational system. Extensive crop testing has been done for both staple and salad crops, but limited data is available on specific cultivar selection and breadboard testing to meet nominal Mars mission profiles of a 500-600 day surface mission. The recent research emphasis at Kennedy Space Center has shifted from staple crops, such as wheat, soybean and rice, toward short cycle salad crops such as lettuce, onion, radish, tomato, pepper, and strawberry. This paper will review the results of crop experiments to support the Exploration Initiative and the ongoing development of supporting technologies, and give an overview of capabilities of the newly opened Space Life Science (SLS) Lab at Kennedy Space Center. The 9662 square m (104,000 square ft) SLS Lab was built by the State of Florida and supports all NASA research that had been performed in Hanger-L. In addition to NASA research, the SLS Lab houses the Florida Space Research Institute (FSRI), responsible for co-managing the facility, and the University of Florida (UF) has established the Space Agriculture and Biotechnology Research and Education (SABRE) Center with several faculty.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20120003471
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Evolution of space-based plant growth systems from research to life support

2004

Robert Morrow,Thomas Crabb,Mark Lee

publication: Space 2004 Conference and Exhibit

Abstract

Plant growth systems for space were first flown in the 1960s. Plant chambers flown from that time until the present were developed to conduct basic plant research in reduced gravity. The use of plants for providing life-support has been tested on the ground, but has never been used on-orbit. With the New Vision for Space Exploration, emphasis has now been placed on implementing the first small steps of a bioregenerative life-support system in the guise of “vegetable production units.” As the duration and size of space missions increase, these early precursors will evolve to larger units that will eventually become the primary source of life support in remote space bases.
doi: 10.2514/6.2004-6022 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2004-6022
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Ethylene production throughout growth and development of plants

2004

Raymond M. Wheeler,Barbara V. Peterson,Gary W. Stutte

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Ethylene production by 10 or 20 m2 stands of wheat, soybean, lettuce, potato, and tomato was monitored throughout growth and development in an atmospherically closed plant chamber. Chamber ethylene levels varied among species and rose during periods of canopy expansion and rapid growth for all species. Following this, ethylene levels either declined during seed fill and maturation for wheat and soybean, or remained relatively constant for potato and tomato (during flowering and early fruit development). Lettuce plants were harvested during rapid growth and peak ethylene production. Chamber ethylene levels increased rapidly during tomato ripening, reaching concentrations about 10 times that measured during vegetative growth. The highest ethylene production rates during vegetative growth ranged from 1.6 to 2.5 nmol m-2 d-1 during rapid growth of lettuce and wheat stands, or about 0.3 to 0.5 nmol g-1 fresh weight per hour. Estimates of stand ethylene production during tomato ripening showed that rates reached 43 nmol m-2 d-1 in one study and 93 nmol m-2 d-1 in a second study with higher lighting, or about 50x that of the rate during vegetative growth of tomato. In a related test with potato, the photoperiod was extended from 12 to 24 hours (continuous light) at 58 days after planting (to increase tuber yield), but this change in the environment caused a sharp increase in ethylene production from the basal rate of 0.4 to 6.2 nmol m-2 d-1. Following this, the photoperiod was changed back to 12 h at 61 days and ethylene levels decreased. The results suggest three separate categories of ethylene production were observed with whole stands of plants: 1) production during rapid vegetative growth, 2) production during climacteric fruit ripening, and 3) production from environmental stress.
pubmed: 15765576 link: https://www.academia.edu/download/71815173/Ethylene_production_throughout_growth_an20211007-11641...
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Developing a vitamin greenhouse for the life support system of the International Space Station and for future interplanetary missions

2004

Y.A. Berkovich,N.M. Krivobok,Yu.Ye. Sinyak,S.O. Smolyanina,Yu.I. Grigoriev,S.Yu. Romanov,A.S. Guissenberg

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

In order to evaluate the effects of gravity on growing plants, we conducted ground based long-term experiments with dwarf wheat, cultivar Apogee and Chinese cabbage, cultivar Khibinskaya. The test crops had been grown in overhead position with HPS lamp below root module so gravity and light intensity gradients had been in opposite direction. Plants of the control crop grew in normal position under the same lamp. Both crops were grown on porous metallic membranes with stable -1 kPa matric potential on their surface. Results from these and other studies allowed us to examine the differences in growth and development of the plants as well as the root systems in relation to the value of the gravity force influence. Dry weight of the roots from test group was decreased in 2.5 times for wheat and in 6 times - at the Chinese cabbage, but shoot dry biomass was practically same for both test and control versions. A harvest index of the test plants increased substantially. The data shows, that development of the plants was essentially changed in microgravity. The experiments in the space greenhouse Svet aboard the Mir space station proved that it is possible to compensate the effects of weightlessness on higher plants by manipulating gradients of environmental parameters (i.e. photon flux, matric potential in the root zone, etc.). However, the average productivity of Svet concerning salad crops even in ground studies did not provide more than 14 g fresh biomass per day. This does not provide a sufficient level of supplemental nutrients to the crew of the ISS. A cylindrical design of a space plant growth chamber (SPGC) allows for maximal productivity in presence of very tight energy and volume limitations onboard the ISS and provides a number of operational advantages. Productivity from this type of SPGF with a 0.5 kW energy utilization when salad growing would provide approximately 100 g of edible biomass per day, which would almost satisfy requirements for a crew of two in vitamin C and carotene and partly vitamin B group as well as rough fiber.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2004.06.006 pubmed: 15846885 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117704006404
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Nutrient management in recirculating hydroponic culture

2004

B. Bugbee

publication: South Pacific Soilless Culture Conference-SPSCC 648

Abstract

There is an increasing need to recirculate and reuse nutrient solutions in order to reduce environmental and economic costs. However, one of the weakest points in hydroponics is the lack of information on managing the nutrient solution. Many growers and research scientists dump out nutrient solutions and refill at weekly intervals. Other authors have recommended measuring the concentrations of individual nutrients in solution as a key to nutrient control and maintenance. Dumping and replacing solution is unnecessary. Monitoring ions in solution is not always necessary; in fact the rapid depletion of some nutrients often causes people to add toxic amounts of nutrients to the solution. Monitoring ions in solution is interesting, but it is not the key to effective maintenance.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.648.12 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/648/648_12.htm
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Some Ways of Waste Utilization for a Biogenerative Life Support System. Closed Habitation Experiments and Circulation Technology

2004

Tikhomirov A.A., S.A. Ushakova, N.P. Kovaleva, I.G.Zolotukhin Yu.A. Kudenko, N.A. Tikhomirova, V.V. Velichko

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Water cycle and its management for plant habitats at reduced pressures

2004

Vadim Y. Rygalov,Philip A. Fowler,Raymond M. Wheeler,Ray A. Bucklin

publication: Habitation (Elmsford, N.Y.)

Abstract

Experimental and mathematical models were developed for describing and testing temperature and humidity parameters for plant production in bioregenerative life support systems. A factor was included for analyzing systems operating at low (10-101.3 kPa) pressure to reduce gas leakage and structural mass (e.g., inflatable greenhouses for space application). The expected close relationship between temperature and relative humidity was observed, along with the importance of heat exchanger coil temperature and air circulation rate. The presence of plants in closed habitats results in increased water flux through the system. Changes in pressure affect gas diffusion rates and surface boundary layers, and change convective transfer capabilities and water evaporation rates. A consistent observation from studies with plants at reduced pressures is increased evapotranspiration rates, even at constant vapor pressure deficits. This suggests that plant water status is a critical factor for managing low-pressure production systems. The approach suggested should help space mission planners design artificial environments in closed habitats.
doi: 10.3727/154296604774808865 pubmed: 15880909 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/habit/2004/00000010/00000001/art00005
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Soil-like substrate for plant growing derived from inedible plant mass: preparing, composition, fertility

2004

J.-B. Gros,C. Lasseur,A.A. Tikhomirov,N.S. Manukovsky,S.A. Ushakova,I.G. Zolotukhin,I.V. Gribovskaya,V.S. Kovalev

publication: International Symposium on Growing Media and Hydroponics

Abstract

Fertility of soil-like substrate (SLS) made by successive conversion of wheat straw by oyster mushrooms and worms has been evaluated. Soil-like substrate of different degree of maturity has been tested. The most ready SLS provided the higher yields of wheat. It comprised 9.5% of humic acids, 4.9% of fulvic acids and 15.2% of nonhydrolyzable substances. At atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide the soil-like substrate decreased its mass over the vegetation period by 14-21%. The yield of wheat, beans and cucumbers grown on the soil-like substrate was compared to that on hydroponics.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.644.18 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/644/644_18.htm
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The minimal cost of life in space

2004

A.E. Drysdale,C.J. Rutkze,L.D. Albright,R.L. LaDue

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

The cost of keeping people alive in space is assessed from a theoretical viewpoint and using two actual designs for plant growth systems. While life support is theoretically not very demanding, our ability to implement life support is well below theoretical limits. A theoretical limit has been calculated from requirements and the state of the art for plant growth has been calculated using data from the BIO-Plex PDR and from the Cornell CEA prototype system. The very low efficiency of our current approaches results in a high mission impact, though we can still see how to get a significant reduction in cost of food when compared to supplying it from Earth. Seeing the distribution of costs should allow us to improve our current designs.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2003.02.072 pubmed: 15846879 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117704006179
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Effects of air velocity on photosynthesis of plant canopies under elevated CO2 levels in a plant culture system

2004

Y. Kitaya, T. Shibuya, M. Yoshida, M. Kiyota

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

To obtain basic data for adequate air circulation for promoting plant growth in closed plant production modules in bioregenerative life support systems in space, effects of air velocities ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 m s-1 on photosynthesis in tomato seedlings canopies were investigated under atmospheric CO2 concentrations of 0.4 and 0.8 mmol mol-1. The canopy of tomato seedlings on a plug tray (0.4 x 0.4 m2) was set in a wind-tunnel-type chamber (0.6 x 0.4 x 0.3 m3) installed in a semi-closed-type assimilation chamber (0.9 x 0.5 x 0.4 m3). The net photosynthetic rate in the plant canopy was determined with the differences in CO2 concentrations between the inlet and outlet of the assimilation chamber multiplied by the volumetric air exchange rate of the chamber. Photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) on the plant canopy was kept at 0.25 mmol m-2 s-1, air temperature at 23 degrees C and relative humidity at 55%. The leaf area indices (LAIs) of the plant canopies were 0.6-2.5 and plant heights were 0.05-0.2 m. The net photosynthetic rate of the plant canopy increased with increasing air velocities inside plant canopies and saturated at 0.2 m s-1. The net photosynthetic rate at the air velocity of 0.4 m s-1 was 1.3 times that at 0.1 m s-1 under CO2 concentrations of 0.4 and 0.8 mmol mol-1. The net photosynthetic rate under CO2 concentrations of 0.8 mmol mol-1 was 1.2 times that under 0.4 mmol mol-1 at the air velocity ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 m s-1. The results confirmed the importance of controlling air movement for enhancing the canopy photosynthesis under an elevated CO2 level as well as under a normal CO2 level in the closed plant production modules.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2003.08.031 pubmed: 15825257 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117703012031
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Effects of gravity on pore fluid distribution – KC135 flight investigation

2004

L.R. Reddi, M. Xiao, S.L. Steinberg

publication: Soil Science Society of America Journal

Abstract

Designing a reliable plant growth system for crop production in space requires the understanding of pore fluid distribution in porous media under microgravity. The objective of this experimental investigation, which was conducted aboard NASA KC-135 reduced gravity flight, is to study possible particle separation and the distribution of discontinuous wetting fluid in porous media under microgravity. KC-135 aircraft provided gravity conditions of 1, 1.8, and 10−2 g Glass beads of a known size distribution were used as porous media; and Hexadecane, a petroleum compound immiscible with and lighter than water, was used as wetting fluid at residual saturation. Nitrogen freezer was used to solidify the discontinuous Hexadecane ganglia in glass beads to preserve the ganglia size changes during different gravity conditions, so that the blob-size distributions (BSDs) could be measured after flight. It was concluded from this study that microgravity has little effect on the size distribution of pore fluid blobs corresponding to residual saturation of wetting fluids in porous media. The blobs showed no noticeable breakup or coalescence during microgravity. However, based on the increase in bulk volume of samples due to particle separation under microgravity, groups of particles, within which pore fluid blobs were encapsulated, appeared to have rearranged themselves under microgravity.
link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/sssaj2004.0157
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Response to copper toxicity for three ornamental crops in solution culture

2004

Youbin Zheng,Linping Wang,Mike A. Dixon

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Electrolytically generated copper is increasingly used to control diseases and algae in the greenhouse industry. However, there is a shortage of information regarding appropriate management strategies for copper in ornamental crop production. The objectives of this study were to characterize the response of three ornamental crops (Dendranthema xgrandiflorum L. 'Fina', Rosa xhybrida L. 'Lavlinger', Pelargonium xhortorum L. 'Evening Glow') to different solution levels of Cu2+ (ranging from 0.4 to 40 μM) and to determine the critical levels above which toxic responses became apparent. The following measurements were used to assess the treatments: leaf chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), leaf chlorophyll content, and visible injury of leaf and root. Excessive copper reduced plant root length, root dry weight, total dry weight, root to shoot ratio, leaf area, and specific leaf area in all three species. The critical solution level of Cu2+ that resulted in significantly reduced plant dry weight for chrysanthemum was 5 μM; for miniature rose, 2.4; and for geranium, 8 μM. Plant visible root injury was a more sensitive and reliable copper toxicity indicator than visible leaf injury, leaf chlorophyll content, Fv/Fm, or leaf and stem copper content. Generally, all the species exhibited some sensitivity to Cu 2+ in solution culture, with chrysanthemum and miniature rose being most sensitive and geranium being least sensitive. Caution should be taken when applying copper in solution culture production systems.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.39.5.1116 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mike-Dixon-2/publication/265819911_Response_to_Copper_Toxici...
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Lettuce crop evapotranspiration, nitrate uptake, and growth mechanistic simulation modeling: For use in fault detection in hydroponic production systems

2004

J.J. Mathieu

publication: Thesis

Abstract

Comparing measured rates of crop evapotranspiration and nitrate uptake to values predicted by crop-specific simulation models in real-time was hypothesized to provide early fault or problem detection for NASA's hydroponic crop production systems. An existing crop growth and nitrate uptake simulation model (NICOLET) was selected for hydroponic lettuce (Lactuca sativa L., cv. Flandria) production in a greenhouse equipped with supplemental lighting. Accurate growth and evapotranspiration simulation modeling was possible, especially if the models are calibrated to specific hydroponic production systems and procedures. The NICOLET model predicts shoot nitrate concentration increases quickly to a maximum value with a diurnal oscillation pattern under constant environmental conditions. The shoot nitrate concentration data supported diurnal model predictions; namely, shoot nitrate concentration decreases during the course of the day and is replenished during the dark period. Results of this study indicate shoot nitrate concentration increases gradually. However, the linear relationship (R2 = 0.83) between plant age and shoot nitrate concentration provides a useful empirical relationship. Water content change caused by transplanting is immediate and measurable and could also be used in fault detection. The simple Penman-Monteith equation was used to model lettuce crop evapotranspiration. The resistance terms in the equation incorporated crop characteristics and were tested using constant and dynamically determined values. A combination evapotranspiration model using constant resistance terms during the dark period and simulated terms during the light period provide best results. Very good reproducibility of results was achieved for hydroponic system crop growth and evapotranspiration, which is essential to use evapotranspiration in fault detection. An imposed copper fault or toxicity was transiently detected using evapotranspiration as the indicator. NASA needs hydroponic production systems low in mass and their systems often require re-use of nutrient waste streams. A reduced mass system would minimize the nutrient solution volume and maximize the crop biomass produced. This is precisely the kind of system best suited to early fault or problem detection using an evapotranspiration indicator. If this were coupled with low nitrate waste streams, nitrate uptake would also be a useful indicator.
link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/81577d3a0dc7ddde7fd56eafbf9eb14b/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=...
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Tomatosphere - Mission to Mars An Educational Outreach Project for Primary and Secondary Schools

2004

Rondeau Vuk,M. Dixon, R. Morrow.

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

The concept for Tomatosphere originated in late 1999 and the project held its first formal meeting on February 7, 2000. The project was formally activated when 200,000 Heinz tomato seeds went into space on November 30, 2000, with Canadian astronaut, Dr. Marc Garneau. The seeds were part of an experiment designed to test the effects of short- term space travel on seed germination and interaction with new techniques designed to enhance germination rates. An equal number of seeds stayed behind on Earth and the two lots, space-flown and Earth-bound, were further sub- divided into two treatments using new Infra Red and Red light technology developed at the University of Guelph. The resulting four treatments were packaged and sent to almost 2700 classrooms across Canada, along with posters and a teacher's guide matched to the Pan- Canadian Protocol for Collaboration on School Curriculum, a framework of Science Learning Outcomes developed by the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. The emphasis for the curriculum connections was from grade 3 (plants and soil) to grade six (space). The project met with an overwhelming response from educators and students. As such, in 2003, the project expanded to involve more than 5 000 classrooms across Canada; the scope of the project was also expanded from the original grade 3-6 focus to include grades 8 - 10. The scope of the curriculum in grades 8-10 allows for the incorporation of several objectives relative to the ISS mission objectives, the overall concept of humans in space, and the application of knowledge from space programs to the well-being of humankind on Earth.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44737958
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[citation] Overview of life support activities in ESA

2004

Ch Lasseur, G. Tan

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Soybean canopy gas exchange rates: Effects of lighting

2004

R.M. Wheeler, K.A. Corey, G.M. Volk, C.L. Mackowiak, N.C. Yorio, J.C. Sager

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

Gas exchange rates for 20-m2 soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) stands were tracked throughout growth and development in three separate experiments with different photosynthetic photon fluxes (PPF) levels. Canopy photosynthesis and transpiration rates increased in all three experiments with canopy ground during early growth (10 to 30 days after planting-DAP) and reached a maximum ca. 40 DAP. Dark period respiration rates increased with increasing biomass (10 to 30 DAP) and reached a maximum ca. 30 to 40 DAP. Photosynthetic rates showed a linear increase with growth PPF levels in the three experiments, as well as during short-term tests in which lamps were dimmed to achieve different PPFs. In contrast, canopy transpiration rates were similar in all three studies. Photosynthesis and transpiration rates both decreased as the stands matured (ca. 55 to 90 DAP), whereas dark period respiration rates remained relatively constant until ca. 75 DAP, after which the rates gradually decreased.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku.16.209 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seitaikogaku/16/3/16_3_209/_article/-char/ja/
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Using explanatory crop models to develop simple tools for Advanced Life Support system studies

2004

J. Cavazzoni

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

System-level analyses for Advanced Life Support require mathematical models for various processes, such as for biomass production and waste management, which would ideally be integrated into overall system models. Explanatory models (also referred to as mechanistic or process models) would provide the basis for a more robust system model, as these would be based on an understanding of specific processes. However, implementing such models at the system level may not always be practicable because of their complexity. For the area of biomass production, explanatory models were used to generate parameters and multivariable polynomial equations for basic models that are suitable for estimating the direction and magnitude of daily changes in canopy gas-exchange, harvest index, and production scheduling for both nominal and off-nominal growing conditions.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2003.02.073 pubmed: 15846882 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117704006192
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Altered leaf and root emissions from onion (Allium cepa L.) grown under elevated CO2 conditions

2004

Richard Jasoni,Chad Kane,Cary Green,Ellen Peffley,David Tissue,Leslie Thompson,Paxton Payton,Paul W. Paré

publication: Environmental and Experimental Botany

Abstract

Elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations ([CO2]) have been hypothesized to increase photosynthesis rates and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions; however, field measurements from a select group of conifer and angiosperm trees have shown that VOC emissions are in fact not affected or reduced by elevated CO2 levels. To broaden the understanding of how different plant species respond to elevated atmospheric [CO2], air-flow-through, glass chambers were designed and utilized to measure photosynthesis and emissions from onion (Allium cepa cv. ‘Purplette’) under controlled environmental conditions. Here we report on VOC release and root exudation while monitoring photosynthesis from whole plants grown under ambient (400 μmol mol−1) and elevated (1000 μmol mol−1) [CO2]. A 22% increase in photosynthesis in the elevated CO2 plants and a 17-fold and 38-fold increase in the VOC hydrocarbons 2-undecanone and 2-tridecanone, respectively, were observed in 30-day-old onion seedlings compared to plants grown under ambient CO2 conditions. In contrast TOC from root exudates decreased significantly with elevated CO2 conditions. Plants harvested at 30 days had on average over 40% greater biomass when grown at elevated CO2 levels. The demonstration that VOC emissions increase in plants grown under elevated [CO2] and higher photosynthesis rates points to a fundamental difference in how carbon partitioning alters in herbaceous species such as onion versus the previously studied tree species in response to elevated concentration of atmospheric CO2.
doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2003.11.006 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0098847203001035
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Characterizing the environmental response of a gibberellic acid deficient rice for use as a model crop

2004

Jonathan M. Frantz,Derek Pinnock,Steve Klassen,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Agronomy Journal

Abstract

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a useful model crop plant. Rice was the first crop plant to have its complete genome sequenced. Unfortunately, even semidwarf rice cultivars are 60 to 90 cm tall, and large plant populations cannot be grown in the confined volumes of greenhouses and growth chambers. We recently identified an extremely short (20 cm tall) rice line, which is an ideal model for larger rice cultivars. We called this line ‘Super Dwarf’ rice. Here we report the response of Super Dwarf to temperature, photoperiod, photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), and factors that can affect time to head emergence. Vegetative biomass increased 6% per degree Celsius, with increasing temperature from 27 to 31°C. Seed yield decreased by 2% per degree Celsius rise in temperature, and as a result, harvest index decreased from 60 to 54%. The time to heading increased by 2 d for every hour above a 12-h photoperiod. Yield increased with increasing PPF up to the highest level tested at 1800 μmol m−2 s−1 (12-h photoperiod; 77.8 mol m−2 d−1). Yield efficiency (grams per mole of photons) increased to 900 μmol m−2 s−1 and then slightly decreased at 1800 μmol m−2 s−1. Heading was delayed by addition of gibberellic acid 3 (GA3) to the root zone but was hastened under mild N stress. Overall, short stature, high yield, high harvest index, and no extraordinary environmental requirements make Super Dwarf rice an excellent model plant for yield studies in controlled environments.
doi: 10.2134/agronj2004.1172 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj2004.1172
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Long-term blue light effects on the histology of lettuce and soybean leaves and stems

2004

Tracy A.O. Dougher,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Blue light (320 to 496 nm) alters hypocotyl and stem elongation and leaf expansion in short-term, cell-level experiments, but histological effects of blue light in long-term studies of whole plants have not been described. We measured cell size and number in stems of soybean (Glycine max L.) and leaves of soybean and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), at two blue light fractions. Short-term studies have shown that cell expansion in stems is rapidly inhibited when etiolated tissue is exposed to blue light. However, under long-term light exposure, an increase in the blue light fraction from <0.1% to 26% decreased internode length, specifically by inhibiting soybean cell division in stems. In contrast, an increase in blue light fraction from 6% to 26% reduced soybean leaf area by decreasing cell expansion. Surprisingly, lettuce leaf area increased with increasing blue light fraction (0% to 6%), which was attributed to a 3.1-fold increase in cell expansion and a 1.6-fold increase in cell division.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.129.4.0467 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bruce-Bugbee/publication/277810336_Long-term_Blue_Light_Effe...
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Carbon gain, water use and nutrient uptake of beet (Beta vulgaris) grown in controlled environments

2004

Geoffrey Waters,Youbin Zheng,Danuta Gidzinski,Michael Dixon

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Due to its large proportion of edible biomass, beet (Beta vulgaris) has high potential as a candidate crop for bioregenerative life support systems. This paper summarizes data collected for beet under batch and staged stand culture in closed environment chambers. Full stand trials were conducted under the following conditions: 1000 μL L−1 atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, light intensities ranging from 400–600 μmol m−2 s−1 PAR with a 14 hour photoperiod, 73% ± 5% relative humidity, a 26/20 °C day/night temperature regime and a fixed planting density of 17.6 plants m−2. For batch planted stands, total edible yield was determined to be 28.3 g dry weight basis (dwb) with a 95% Confidence Interval (CI) of [24.7, 31.8] g plant−1 with a harvest index of 94%. Under similar conditions, yield for staged beet stands was 31.4 g dwb with a 95% CI of [24.54, 38.31] g plant−1. Water use efficiency under these same conditions was found to be 0.003 mol C mol−1 H2O. Relative nitrate, ammonium, phosphate and potassium uptake rate averaged 0.11. Data indicate that a square meter of beet in production would supply roughly 2% of the daily air revitalization requirement of a single crew member.
doi: 10.4271/2004-01-2435 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2004-01-2435/
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Green light supplementation for enhanced lettuce growth under red-and blue-light-emitting diodes

2004

Hyeon-Hye Kim,Gregory D. Goins,Raymond M. Wheeler,John C. Sager

publication: HortScience : a publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Plants will be an important component of future long-term space missions. Lighting systems for growing plants will need to be lightweight, reliable, and durable, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have these characteristics. Previous studies demonstrated that the combination of red and blue light was an effective light source for several crops. Yet the appearance of plants under red and blue lighting is purplish gray making visual assessment of any problems difficult. The addition of green light would make the plant leave appear green and normal similar to a natural setting under white light and may also offer a psychological benefit to the crew. Green supplemental lighting could also offer benefits, since green light can better penetrate the plant canopy and potentially increase plant growth by increasing photosynthesis from the leaves in the lower canopy. In this study, four light sources were tested: 1) red and blue LEDs (RB), 2) red and blue LEDs with green fluorescent lamps (RGB), 3) green fluorescent lamps (GF), and 4) cool-white fluorescent lamps (CWF), that provided 0%, 24%, 86%, and 51% of the total PPF in the green region of the spectrum, respectively. The addition of 24% green light (500 to 600 nm) to red and blue LEDs (RGB treatment) enhanced plant growth. The RGB treatment plants produced more biomass than the plants grown under the cool-white fluorescent lamps (CWF treatment), a commonly tested light source used as a broad-spectrum control.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.39.7.1617 pubmed: 15770792 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Sager/publication/7963634_Green-light_Supplementation_f...
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Development and testing of a cylindrical LED lighting unit for a conveyer-type salad production system

2004

Yu. A. Berkovich,A. N. Erokhin,S. O. Smolianina,J. J. Prenger,H. G. Levine

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

A cylindrical plant growth chamber (PGC) referred to as PHYTOCYCLE-SD was designed and developed as a conveyor-type cultivation system for continuous production of salad crops. The volume of the plant growth chamber is 0.19 m3, and the illuminated crop area is 0.86 m2. The PGC is comprised of a convex cylindrical planting surface with a spiral cylindrical light unit (LU) above the planting surface. The LU consists of 15 light-emitting diode (LED) panels distributed on the spiral cylindrical surface with adjustable operating currents between 10 to 35 mA. The average photosynthetic photon flux (PPF, 400–700 nm wavelengths) level at the crop surface (3 cm below the light bar) is 350 μmol m−2 s−1 and the LU power consumption is approximately 440 W. Leaf area as a function of the radius of the cylindrical growth chamber has been determined experimentally. Light intensity and distribution inside cylindrical growth chamber has been measured and modeled. These models can be used to estimate the productivity of various species crops in a spiral growth chamber compared to a flat surface.
doi: 10.4271/2004-01-2434 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2004-01-2434/
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Sweet pepper status under low atmospheric pressures

2004

C. Wehkamp, M. Stasiak, Y. Zheng, M. Dixon

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The case for plants on Mars

2004

C.P. McKay

publication: XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Horticulture, Art and Science for Life - The Colloquia Presentations

Abstract

The human exploration of Mars will be motivated by the scientific exploration of that planet in order to determine if it supported life in the past and could support a biosphere in the future. Humans will not go to Mars alone but in concert with other life forms from Earth. Plants in particular will be key resources for human explorers and plant-based ecosystems may be established on Mars robotically before humans arrive. An essential near-term step is the testing of a plant growth module on a Mars lander mission. In the long-term, plant-based ecosystems may form the basis for global ecosynthesis on Mars.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.642.20 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/642/642_20.htm
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Exploring the limits of crop productivity: Beyond the limits of tipburn in lettuce

2004

Jonathan M. Frantz,Glen Ritchie,Nilton N. Cometti,Justin Robinson,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The productivity of lettuce in a combination of high light, high temperature, and elevated CO2 has not been commonly studied because rapid growth usually causes a calcium deficiency in meristems called tipburn, which greatly reduces quality and marketability. We eliminated tipburn by blowing air directly onto the meristem, which allowed us to increase the photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) to 1000 micromoles m-2 s-1 (57.6 mol m-2 d-1); two to three times higher than normally used for lettuce. Eliminating tipburn doubled edible yield at the highest PPF level. In addition to high PPF, CO2 was elevated to 1200 micromoles m-2 mol-1, which increased the temperature optimum from 25 to 30 degrees C. The higher temperature increased leaf expansion rate, which improved radiation capture and more than doubled yield. Photosynthetic efficiency, measured as canopy quantum yield in a whole-plant gas exchange system, steadily increased up to the highest temperature of 32 degrees C in high CO2. The highest productivity was 19 g m-2 d-1 of dry biomass (380 g d-1 fresh mass) averaged over the 23 days the plants received light. Without the limitation of tipburn, the combination of high PPF, high temperature, and elevated CO2 resulted in a 4-fold increase in growth rate over productivity in conventional environments.
pubmed: 15776542 link: https://www.academia.edu/download/38021171/frantz159278_2004_exploring.pdf
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The MELISSA pilot plant facility as an integration test-bed for advanced life support systems

2004

F. Gòdia,J. Albiol,J. Pérez,N. Creus,F. Cabello,A. Montràs,A. Masot,Ch. Lasseur

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The different advances in the Micro Ecological Life Support System Alternative project (MELISSA), fostered and coordinated by the European Space Agency, as well as in other associated technologies, are integrated and demonstrated in the MELISSA Pilot Plant laboratory.
During the first period of operation, the definition of the different compartments at an individual basis has been achieved, and the complete facility is being re-designed to face a new period of integration of all these compartments. The final objective is to demonstrate the potentiality of biological systems such as MELISSA as life support systems. The facility will also serve as a test bed to study the robustness and stability of the continuous operation of a complex biological system. This includes testing of the associated instrumentation and control for a safe operation, characterization of the chemical and microbial safety of the system, as well as tracking the genetic stability of the microbial strains used.
The new period is envisaged as a contribution to the further development of more complete biological life support systems for long-term manned missions, that should be better defined from the knowledge to be gained from this integration phase. This contribution summarizes the current status of the Pilot Plant and the planned steps for the new period.

doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2003.08.038 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117703012018
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Real-time imaging of ground cover: Relationships with radiation capture, canopy photosynthesis, and daily growth rate

2004

S. P. Klassen,G. Ritchie,J.M. Frantz,D. Pinnock,B. Bugbee

publication: Digital Imaging and Spectral Techniques: Applications to Precision Agriculture and Crop Physiology, Volume 66 (BOOK)

Abstract

Cumulative absorbed radiation is highly correlated with crop biomass and yield. In this chapter we describe the use of a digital camera and commercial imaging software for estimating daily radiation capture, canopy photosynthesis, and relative growth rate. Digital images were used to determine percentage of ground cover of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) communities grown at five temperatures. Plants were grown in a steady-state, 10-chamber CO2 gas exchange system, which was used to measure canopy photosynthesis and daily carbon gain. Daily measurements of percentage of ground cover were highly correlated with daily measurements of both absorbed radiation (r 2 = 0.99) and daily carbon gain (r 2 = 0.99). Differences among temperature treatments indicated that these relationships were influenced by leaf angle, leaf area index, and chlorophyll content. An analysis of the daily images also provided good estimates of relative growth rates, which were verified by gas exchange measurements of daily carbon gain. In a separate study we found that images taken at hourly intervals were effective for monitoring real-time growth. Our data suggests that hourly images can be used for early detection of plant stress. Applications, limitations, and potential errors are discussed.
doi: 10.2134/asaspecpub66.c1 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/asaspecpub66.c1
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Bioavailability of iron from spinach using an in vitro/human caco-2 cell bioassay model

2004

C.J. Rutzke, R.P. Glahn, M.A. Rutzke, R.M. Welch, R.W. Langhans, L.D. Albright, G.F. Combs Jr, R.M. Wheeler.

publication: Habitation

Abstract

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) cv Whitney was tested for iron bioavailabilty using an in vitro human intestinal cell culture ferritin bioassay technique previously developed. Spinach was cultured in a growth chamber for 33 days, harvested, and freeze-dried. Total iron in the samples was an average of 71 g/g dry weight. Spinach was digested in vitro (pepsin and 0.1 M HCl followed by pancreatin and 0.1 M NaHCO3) with and without the addition of supplemental ascorbic acid. Caco-2 cell cultures were used to determine iron bioavailability from the spinach mixtures. Production of the iron-binding protein ferritin in the Caco-2 cells showed the supplemental ascorbic acid doubled bioavailability of iron from spinach. The data show fresh spinach is a poor source of iron, and emphasize the importance of evaluation of whole meals rather than single food items. The data support the usefulness of the in vitro/Caco-2 cell ferritin bioassay model for prescreening of space flight diets for bioavailable iron.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/habit/2004/00000010/00000001/art00001
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Biomass, flavonol levels and sensory characteristics of Allium cultivars grown hyudroponically at ambient and elevated CO2

2004

L. Thompson, E. Peffley, C. Green, P. Paré, D. Tissue

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Nine cultivars of four Allium species (Allium cepa, A. fistulosum, A. schoenoprasum, and A. tuberosum) were evaluated for use in Advanced Life Support (ALS) applications by hydroponic propagation in environmental growth chambers to evaluate the effect of elevated CO2 (1200 ppm) versus ambient CO2 (400 ppm) on biomass, total flavonols and folate, and to determine if sensory panelists could distinguish between plants grown at elevated or ambient CO2 when harvested at 49, 63 and 77 days after planting (dap). Regardless of cultivar or dap, plants grown at elevated CO2 had greater biomass and % edible biomass than plants grown at ambient CO2. Of the cultivars evaluated from the 63-dap-harvest, all, with one exception, exhibited increased total flavonols when grown at elevated CO2. Consumer panelists were able to discern differences in sensory characteristics between ambient- versus elevated-CO2-grown ‘Choesty’ but not the other three cultivars evaluated. Based on biomass and flavonol levels ‘Cal 296’ and ‘Purplette’ were the best candidate cultivars for further testing for ALS applications using a single harvest strategy.
doi: 10.4271/2004-01-2300 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2004-01-2300/
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Advanced ASTROCULTURETM plant growth unit: Capabilities and performances

2005

W. Zhou

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Advanced ASTROCULTUR™(ADVASC) plant growth unit is a two Middeck Locker insert developed by the Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. It has been developed to take advantage of plant research opportunities during the early assembly phase of the International Space Station (ISS) when the ISS resources and up/down mass availability are limited. ADVASC provides a large enclosed plant growth chamber. Control software provides precise control of environmental parameters in the plant chamber, including temperature, relative humidity, light, fluid nutrient delivery, and CO2 and ethylene concentrations. Auto-prime technologies eliminate the need for power during Shuttle ascent/descent, and therefore, greatly relieve the shortage of Shuttle resources and the ISS crew time. Although ADVASC is designed to operate autonomously, tele-science capabilities such as remote commanding, telemetry, and image/video transmission allow engineers and scientists to be able to remotely configure, monitor, and conduct on-going experiments as well as to remotely diagnose hardware operating anomalies.
Up to date, ADVASC has been used for conducting three plant growth experiments, with different scientific objectives, onboard the International Space Station during the missions of 6A/7A.1 (Inc.2), UF-1/8A (Inc.4), and UF-2/9A (Inc.5), respectively. Experimental results demonstrated that ADVASC is capable of stably providing desired environmental conditions suitable for plant growth and development in microgravity, and is able to autonomously recover its operating conditions from unexpected, severe power interruptions.

doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2840 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2840/
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Shortwave radiation. In: Micrometeorological measurements in agricultural systems

2005

S.P. Klassen, B. Bugbee

publication: Micrometeorology in Agricultural Systems, Volume 47

Abstract

Shortwave radiation is the energy source that drives evaporation, transpiration, photosynthesis, and many other important processes linked to agricultural systems. A pyranometer measures global shortwave radiation, combining both direct and diffuse solar radiation into a single measurement. A pyrheliometer is a narrow aperture instrument that measures only the direct beam component of solar radiation. Diffuse irradiance is typically measured using a pyranometer that is shaded from the direct beam of the sun with a solar tracking shade disk. Fundamentally, modern pyranometers are based on either a thermoelectric (thermopile, black body) or a photoelectric (silicon photodiode) response. Pyranometers are subject to errors associated with characteristics of the sensor (cosine, spectral, and temperature responses), and general use (installation, dirt, moisture, and aging). Conservative estimates for measurement uncertainty are about 2 to 3 percent for thermopile and 3 to 6 percent for silicon photodiode pyranometers.
doi: 10.2134/agronmonogr47.c3 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronmonogr47.c3
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Continuous light may induce photosynthetic dowregulation in onion--consequences for growth and biomass partitioning

2005

Natasja C. Van Gestel,April D. Nesbit,Elizabeth P. Gordon,Cary Green,Paul W. Paré,Leslie Thompson,Ellen B. Peffley,David T. Tissue

publication: Physiologia Plantarum

Abstract

Onions were grown in environmentally controlled growth chambers for 85 days to investigate the effect of relatively low light intensity (350 µmol m−2 s−1) at two different total irradiance periods (12-h and 24-h photoperiods) on growth and photosynthetic performance. To test whether photosynthetic downregulation occurred due to carbohydrate feedback, we used onions that differed in bulb-forming capacity. Allium fistulosum (L. cv. ‘Kinka’) is a non-bulbing onion, with potentially limited carbohydrate storage capacity, while Allium cepa (L. cv. ‘Cal 296’) is a bulb-forming onion with possibly greater carbohydrate storage capacity. In A. fistulosum, photosynthetic downregulation was observed in 24-h plants as indicated by reductions in the light- and CO2-saturated photosynthetic capacity (Asat and Amax, respectively) by 26%, reduced maximum rate of carboxylation (Vcmax) by ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) by 33%, reduced maximum rate of electron transport (Jmax) by 27% and 3-fold higher foliar sugar concentration. In contrast, the photosynthetic and biochemical capacity of A. cepa was not affected by exposure to 24-h photoperiod, presumably because substantial amounts of foliar carbohydrates were re-allocated to bulbs. In 24-h A. cepa, up to 84% of total plant mass was allocated to bulbs, while in 12-h plants, more mass was allocated to leaves. Production of greater leaf area in 12-h plants compared with 24-h plants compensated for lower total daily irradiance such that 12-h and 24-h plants of both species exhibited similar daily total leaf net CO2 exchange and plant mass at the end of the experiment.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2005.00560.x link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2005.00560.x
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Lessons learned from Biosphere 2 and laboratory biosphere closed systems experiment for the Mars on Earth project

2005

A. Alling, M. Van Thillo, W. Dempster, M. Nelson, S. Silverstone, J. Allen

publication: Biological Sciences in Space

Abstract

Mars On Earth® (MOE) is a demonstration/research project that will develop systems for maintaining 4 people in a sustainable (bioregenerative) life support system on Mars. The overall design will address not only the functional requirements for maintaining long term human habitation in a sustainable artificial environment, but the aesthetic need for beauty and nutritional/psychological importance of a diversity of foods which has been noticeably lacking in most space settlement designs. Key features selected for the Mars On Earth® life support system build on the experience of operating Biosphere 2 as a closed ecological system facility from 1991-1994, its smaller 400 cubic meter test module and Laboratory Biosphere, a cylindrical steel chamber with horizontal axis 3.68 meters long and 3.65 meters in diameter. Future Mars On Earth® agriculture/atmospheric research will include: determining optimal light levels for growth of a variety of crops, energy trade-offs for agriculture (e.g. light intensity vs. required area), optimal design of soil-based agriculture/horticulture systems, strategies for safe re-use of human waste products, and maintaining atmospheric balance between people, plants and soils.
doi: 10.2187/bss.19.250 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/bss/19/4/19_4_250/_article/-char/ja/
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Greenhouse tomato production

2005

Amirhossein Ahmadbeyki,Mohammad Ghahderijani,Alimohammad Borghaee,Hossein Bakhoda

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Microgravity does not alter plant stand gas exchange of wheat at moderate light levels and saturating CO2 concentration

2005

O. Monje,G. Stutte,D. Chapman

publication: Planta

Abstract

Plant stand gas exchange was measured nondestructively in microgravity during the Photosynthesis Experiment Subsystem Testing and Operations experiment conducted onboard the International Space Station. Rates of evapotranspiration and photosynthesis measured in space were compared with ground controls to determine if microgravity directly affects whole-stand gas exchange of Triticum aestivum. During six 21-day experiment cycles, evapotranspiration was determined continuously from water addition rates to the nutrient delivery system, and photosynthesis was determined from the amount of CO2 added to maintain the chamber CO2 concentration setpoint. Plant stand evapotranspiration, net photosynthesis, and water use efficiency were not altered by microgravity. Although leaf area was significantly reduced in microgravity-grown plants compared to ground control plants, leaf area distribution was not affected enough to cause significant differences in the amounts of light absorbed by the flight and ground control plant stands. Microgravity also did not affect the response of evapotranspiration to changes in chamber vapor pressure difference of 12-day-old wheat plant stands. These results suggest that gravity naïve plants grown at moderate light levels (300 micromol m(-2) s(-1)) behave the same as ground control plants. This implies that future plant-based regenerative life support systems can be sized using 1 g data because water purification and food production rates operate at nearly the same rates as in 1 g at moderate light levels. However, it remains to be verified whether the present results are reproducible in plants grown under stronger light levels.
doi: 10.1007/s00425-005-1529-1 pubmed: 15968511 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00425-005-1529-1
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Critical aspects of starch determination in plant tissues and a new approach utilizing HPAEC/PAD for the quantification of starch-derived glucose

2005

L.H. Levine, J. Bauer, H.G. Levine

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

This paper investigates error-contributing factors frequently encountered during plant starch content determinations by the widely used methodology based on the enzymatic/colorimetric determination of glucose released from enzymatic hydrolysis of starch. Due to the dynamics and variability of starch levels in plant tissues, inaccurate results were found to be associated with sampling and tissue preparation protocols. Other error-contributing factors included: (1) incomplete removal of interfering soluble sugars before starch hydrolysis, (2) non-specific hydrolysis during gelatinisation of starch granules, (3) incomplete hydrolysis of starch due to insufficient amounts of hydrolyzing enzyme, and (4) improper use of starch standards. A unified procedure that only requires 10-25 mg dry material is presented. An alternative approach based on high performance anion exchange chromatography and pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC/PAD) for direct determination of glucose following starch hydrolysis was also implemented to enable quantification of low starch content materials or for micro-scale analysis. The starch values obtained from the HPAEC/PAD approach were directly correlated with the enzymatic/colorimetric method (Slope 1.0113, R² = 0.9993). The advantage of this approach is its greater sensitivity (0.08 mg/L MQL vs 0.6 mg/L in enzymatic/colormetric approach) and the potential to be automated.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2773 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2773/
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Flavonol content and composition of spring onions grown hydroponically or in potting soil

2005

L. Thompson,J. Morris,E. Peffley,C. Green,P. Paré,D. Tissue,R. Jasoni,J. Hutson,B. Wehner,C. Kane

publication: Journal of Food Composition and Analysis

Abstract

Two experiments were conducted as part of an effort to evaluate the suitability of onions as a candidate crop for testing in a closed, controlled environment, hydroponic-based plant facility designed for long-term manned space missions (NASA Engineering Development Unit). Composition and total flavonol content of the plants were determined as they matured in a hydroponic-versus a soil-based system. ‘Purplette’ onions (Allium cepa L.) were grown hydroponically in a greenhouse for as long as 77 days. Composition of the plant tissue was determined at weekly or biweekly intervals. Ca, Mg, K, and N (wet matter basis) all decreased as plants matured. Dry matter (DM) and S contents were constant regardless of age averaging 10.6% and 187 mg/100 g, respectively. Total flavonol (TF) content increased as plants matured (226–538 mg/100 g at 14 and 77 days, respectively). Onions grown in hydroponic units or in potting medium had similar composition for all constituents examined (10.38%, 0.550%, 4.15%, and 0.97% DM, N, C, and ash, respectively; and 126.0, 55.5, 270, 185 and 453 mg/100 g Ca, Mg, K, S and TF, respectively). Based on phenotypic characteristics and composition determined in this study, onions were well suited to hydroponic propagation.
doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2004.06.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889157504001188
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Sensory evaluation, flavanol composition of Allium cultivars grown at different CO2 levels and planting densities

2005

K.M. Kuper

publication: Thesis

Abstract

Allium species, because of their characteristic flavor and numerous health benefits, were recommended to be grown by NASA Advanced Life Support (ALS) program for the Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS). The focus of this program is to find a method of providing food for long-term space missions. Plants of bulbing onion (A. cepa), bunching onion (A. fistulosum), and common chive were each planted at three planting densities (10-, 15-, and 20-mm) and grown under elevated (approx 1200 ppm) and ambient (approx 400 ppm) CO2 in an environmental growth chamber. A. cepa ‘Purplette’ had more intense sensory attributes, percentage ash, Na, and K, but had lower amounts of crude fat, Mg, Ca, and percent N. Planting density did not affect flavonol content or the composition of the plants and only affected one sensory attribute, the pungency at 63 dap. Plants grown in elevated CO2 concentrations had different amounts of ash, Ca, and K. However, differences were only found at 35 to 42 dap. The constituents that varied with age were crude fat, ash, Mg, Ca, Na, K, C, and N. Allium species, particularly A. cepa, can provide a beneficial crop for the space program.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/5ad406f9-95a6-4453-8406-109e5d6c8f02
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Design and fabrication of adjustable red-green-blue LED light arrays for plant research

2005

Kevin M Folta,Lawrence L Koss,Ryan McMorrow,Hyeon-Hye Kim,J Dustin Kenitz,Raymond Wheeler,John C Sager

publication: BMC plant biology

Abstract

Although specific light attributes, such as color and fluence rate, influence plant growth and development, researchers generally cannot control the fine spectral conditions of artificial plant-growth environments. Plant growth chambers are typically outfitted with fluorescent and/or incandescent fixtures that provide a general spectrum that is accommodating to the human eye and not necessarily supportive to plant development. Many studies over the last several decades, primarily in Arabidopsis thaliana, have clearly shown that variation in light quantity, quality and photoperiod can be manipulated to affect growth and control developmental transitions. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) has been used for decades to test plant responses to narrow-bandwidth light. LEDs are particularly well suited for plant growth chambers, as they have an extraordinary life (about 100,000 hours), require little maintenance, and use negligible energy. These factors render LED-based light strategies particularly appropriate for space-biology as well as terrestrial applications. However, there is a need for a versatile and inexpensive LED array platform where individual wavebands can be specifically tuned to produce a series of light combinations consisting of various quantities and qualities of individual wavelengths. Two plans are presented in this report.
doi: 10.1186/1471-2229-5-17 pubmed: 16117835 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-2229-5-17
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Effects of temperature, CO2/O2 concentrations and light intensity on cellular multiplication of microalgae Euglena gracilis

2005

Y. Kitaya, H. Azuma, M. Kiyota

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Microalgae culture is likely to play an important role in aquatic food production modules in bioregenerative systems for producing feeds for fish, converting CO2 to O2 and remedying water quality as well as aquatic higher plants. In the present study, the effects of culture conditions on the cellular multiplication of microalgae, Euglena gracilis, was investigated as a fundamental study to determine the optimum culture conditions for microalgae production in aquatic food production modules including both microalgae culture and fish culture systems. E. gracilis was cultured under conditions with five levels of temperatures (25-33 degrees C), three levels of CO2 concentrations (2-6%), five levels of O2 concentrations (10-30%), and six levels of photosynthetic photon flux (20-200 micromoles m-2 s-1). The number of Euglena cells in a certain volume of solution was monitored with a microscope under each environmental condition. The multiplication rate of the cells was highest at temperatures of 27-31 degrees C, CO2 concentration of 4%, O2 concentration of 20% and photosynthetic photon flux of about 100 micromoles m-2 s-1. The results demonstrate that E. gracilis could efficiently produce biomass and convert CO2 to O2 under relatively low light intensities in aquatic food production modules.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2005.03.039 pubmed: 16175686 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117705003200
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Biological and physicochemical methods for plant wastes and human exometabolites for increasing internal cycling and closure of life support systems

2005

I.G. Zolotukhin,A.A. Tikhomirov,Yu.A. Kudenko,I.V. Gribovskaya

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Wheat was cultivated on soil-like substrate (SLS) produced by the action of worms and microflora from the inedible biomass of wheat. After the growth of the wheat crop, the inedible biomass was restored in SLS and exposed to decomposition ("biological" combustion) and its mineral compounds were assimilated by plants. Grain was returned to the SLS in the amount equivalent to human solid waste produced by consumption of the grain. Human wastes (urine and feces) after physicochemical processing turned into mineralized form (mineralized urine and mineralized feces) and entered the plants' nutrient solution amounts equal to average daily production. Periodically (once every 60-70 days) the nutrient solution was partly (up to 50%) desalinated by electrodialysis. Due to this NaCl concentration in the nutrient solution was sustained at a fixed level of about 0.26%. The salt concentrate obtained could be used in the human nutrition through NaCl extraction and the residuary elements were returned through the mineralized human liquid wastes into matter turnover. The control wheat cultivation was carried out on peat with use of the Knop nutrient solution. Serial cultivation of several wheat vegetations within 280 days was conducted during the experiment. Grain output varied and yield/harvest depended, in large part, upon the amount of inedible biomass returned to SLS and the speed of its decomposition. After achieving a stationary regime, (when the quantity of wheat inedible biomass utilized during vegetation in SLS is equal to the quantity of biomass introduced into SLS before vegetation) grain harvest in comparison with the control was at most 30% less, and in some cases was comparable to the control harvest values. The investigations carried out on the wheat example demonstrated in principle the possibility of long-term functioning of the LSS photosynthesizing link based on optimizations of biological and physicochemical methods of utilization of the human and plants wastes. The possibilities for the use of these technologies for the creation integrated biological-physicochemical LSS with high closure degree of internal matter turnover are discussed in this paper.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2005.01.006 pubmed: 16175680 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117705000645
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Growth, development and genetic status of pea plants cultivated in space greenhouse "LADA"

2005

MA Levinskikh, VN Sychev, TA Derendiaeva, OB Signalova, IG Podol’skiĭ, SA Gostimskiĭ, G Bingham

publication: Aviakosmicheskaia i ekologicheskaia meditsina = Aerospace and environmental medicine

Abstract

In the period between March 2003 and April 2005 five crops of genetically marked dwarf pea were cultivated in greenhouse LADA on the ISS Russian segment to study morphology and genetics in consecutive generations. Results of the first space experiment were analyzed and characteristics of ground plants grown from space seeds were studied. It was shown that parameters of growth, development and genetic status of pea plants that completed the ontogenetic cycle in LADA did not differ substantially from the laboratory control and that plants cultivated in space flight do not incur losses in the reproductive function and form viable seeds. Genetic analysis of plants from the first generation of space and ground seeds using the methods of RAPD-primers (10 markers) and chromosomal aberration analysis failed to reveal genetic polymorphism which means that the spaceflight factors had no effect on the genetic apparatus of the first generation of space-grown plants.
pubmed: 16536032 link: https://europepmc.org/article/med/16536032
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Physical and hydraulic properties of baked ceramic aggregates used for plant growth medium

2005

Susan L. Steinberg,Gerard J. Kluitenberg,Scott B. Jones,Nihad E. Daidzic,Lakshmi N. Reddi,Ming Xiao,Markus Tuller,Rebecca M. Newman,Dani Or,J. Iwan D. Alexander

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Baked ceramic aggregates (fritted clay, arcillite) have been used for plant research both on the ground and in microgravity. Optimal control of water and air within the root zone in any gravity environment depends on physical and hydraulic properties of the aggregate, which were evaluated for 0.25-1-mm and 1-2-mm particle size distributions. The maximum bulk densities obtained by any packing technique were 0.68 and 0.64 g cm-3 for 0.25-1-mm and 1-2-mm particles, respectively. Wettable porosity obtained by infiltration with water was approximately 65%, substantially lower than total porosity of approximately 74%. Aggregate of both particle sizes exhibited a bimodal pore size distribution consisting of inter-aggregate macropores and intra-aggregate micropores, with the transition from macro- to microporosity beginning at volumetric water content of approximately 36% to 39%. For inter-aggregate water contents that support optimal plant growth there is 45% change in water content that occurs over a relatively small matric suction range of 0-20 cm H2O for 0.25-1-mm and 0 to -10 cm H2O for 1-2-mm aggregate. Hysteresis is substantial between draining and wetting aggregate, which results in as much as a approximately 10% to 20% difference in volumetric water content for a given matric potential. Hydraulic conductivity was approximately an order of magnitude higher for 1-2-mm than for 0.25-1-mm aggregate until significant drainage of the inter-aggregate pore space occurred. The large change in water content for a relatively small change in matric potential suggests that significant differences in water retention may be observed in microgravity as compared to earth.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.130.5.767 pubmed: 16173159 link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Markus-Tuller/publication/7590988_Physical_and_Hydraulic_Pro...
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Plant evapotranspiration in a greenhouse on Mars

2005

E.G. Wilkerson

publication: Thesis

Abstract

Successful crop production is vital to manned missions to Mars. Plants play integral roles in conceptual life-support systems as sources of food, oxygen, and waste treatment. Constraints of building a structure on the Martian surface to withstand Earth-similar interior air pressures make it necessary to develop plant growth systems capable of operating in air pressures as low as 0.1 to 0.3 atm (10--30 kPa). Research has shown that plants are capable of surviving in such environments, but have increased rates of water loss. The enormous costs associated with launching a manned mission to Mars make it crucial that plants be not only capable of survival, but also of producing fruit and seed. Plant growth and development, and thus, performance of a biological life-support system are highly dependent on plant environmental responses. Therefore, it is important that the interactions between plants and the environment of a Mars greenhouse are well understood.
A model was used to predict the rate of evapotranspiration in response to changes in pressure, CO2, and light. The model was compared to empirical data obtained in experiments performed in a system of three small-scale low pressure controlled environment chambers built for this research. The system provided control of pressure, CO2 concentration, air temperature, and relative humidity and measured plant weight and leaf temperature.
The rate of evapotranspiration changed little when pressure was 33 kPa and greater, but increased significantly at 12 kPa. Plants quickly wilted when pressure was 12 kPa and CO2 was 40 Pa. Reduced pressure increased the rate of evapotranspiration by decreasing resistances to sensible and latent heat loss as well as reducing the effectiveness of convection. However, when CO2 concentration was increased from 40 to 150 Pa, stomates closed and evapotranspiration decreased even at the lowest pressure. Thus, plants are capable of growing at extreme low pressures, but are more sensitive to changes in other environmental parameters. In a low-pressure Mars greenhouse, failure of the control system will likely result in crop failure.

link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/989cd022b2a7bbef807029a373c049ae/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=...
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Effect of NaCl concentration on productivity and mineral composition of Salicornia europaea as a potential crop for utilization of NaCl in LSS

2005

S.A. Ushakova,N.P. Kovaleva,I.V. Gribovskaya,V.A. Dolgushev,N.A. Tikhomirova

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The accumulation of solid and liquid wastes in manmade ecosystems presents a problem that has not been efficiently solved yet. Urine, containing NaCl, are part of these products. This is an obstacle to the creation of biological systems with a largely closed material cycling, because the amount of solid and liquid wastes in them must be reduced to a minimum. A possible solution to the problem is to select plant species capable of utilizing sufficiently high concentrations of NaCl, edible for humans, and featuring high productivity. Until recently, the life support systems have included the higher plants that were either sensitive to salinization (wheat, many of the legumes, carrot, potato, maize) or relatively salt-resistant (barley, sugar beet, spinach). Salicomia europaea, whose above-ground part is fully edible for humans, is one of the most promising candidates to be included in life support systems. It is reported in the literature that this plant is capable of accumulating up to 50% NaCl (dry basis). Besides, excessive accumulation of sodium ions should bring forth a decrease in the uptake of potassium ions and other biogenic elements. The aim of this work is to study the feasibility of using S. europaea plants in growth chambers to involve NaCl into material cycling. Plants were grown in vegetation chambers at the irradiance of 100 or 150 W/m2 PAR (photosynthetically active radiation) and the air temperature 24 °C, by two methods. The first method was to grow the plants on substrate – peat. The peat was supplemented with either 3% NaCl (Variant 1) or 6% NaCl (Variant 2) of the oven-dry mass of the peat. The second method was to grow the plants in water culture, using the solution with a full complement of nutrients, which contained 0.0005% of NaCl, 1% or 2%. The study showed that the addition of NaCl to the substrate or to the solution resulted in the formation of more succulent plants, which considerably increased their biomass. The amount of NaCl uptake was the highest in the plants grown in water culture, 2.6 g per plant. As the sodium uptake increased, the consumption of potassium and the sum of the reduced N forms decreased twofold. The uptake of calcium and magnesium by plants decreased as the NaCl concentration increased; the smallest amounts were taken up by S. europaea grown in water culture. Salinity had practically no effect on the uptake of phosphorus and sulfur. Thus, S. europaea is a promising candidate to be included in life support systems; of special interest is further research on growing these plants in water culture.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2004.09.017 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117705002024
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Photosynthesis of lettuce exposed to different short term light qualities

2005

Hyeon-Hye KIM,Raymond WHEELER,John SAGER,Joey NORIKANE

publication: Environmental Control in Biology

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to investigate the effect of short-term changes in the spectral environment on photosynthesis. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) plant were grown under red-greenblue (RGB) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for 23 d and then given 24-h exposure to red (R), redgreen (RG), or red-blue (RB) LEDs. Photosynthetic rates (Pn) were measured before the 24-h exposure, after 24-h exposure, and 24 h after returning to the original RGB lighting. Temporary changes in spectral quality affectedPn. The effects of the different light treatments onPnreversed after returning to the initial light source. This study showed thatPnwas responsive to spectral quality in the short-term and is not directly coupled to stomatal conductance.
doi: 10.2525/ecb.43.113 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ecb2005/43/2/43_2_113/_article/-char/ja/
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Lighting emitting diodes as an illumination source for plants: A review of research a Kennedy Space Center

2005

H.-H. Kim, R.M. Wheeler, J.C. Sager, N.C. Yorio, G.D. Goins

publication: Habitation (Elmsford, N.Y.)

Abstract

The provision of sufficient light is a fundamental requirement to support long-term plant growth in space. Several types of electric lamps have been tested to provide radiant energy for plants in this regard, including fluorescent, high-pressure sodium, and metal halide lamps. These lamps vary in terms of spectral quality, which can result in differences in plant growth and morphology. Current lighting research for space-based plant culture is focused on innovative lighting technologies that demonstrate high electrical efficiency and reduced mass and volume. Among the lighting technologies considered for space are light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The combination of red and blue LEDs has proven to be an effective lighting source for several crops, yet the appearance of plants under red and blue lighting is purplish gray, making visual assessment of plant health difficult. Additional green light would make the plant leaves appear green and normal, similar to a natural setting under white light, and may also offer psychological benefits for the crew. The addition of 24% green light (500-600 nm) to red and blue LEDs enhanced the growth of lettuce plants compared with plants grown under cool white fluorescent lamps. Coincidentally, these plants grown under additional green light would have the additional aesthetic appeal of a green appearance.
doi: 10.3727/154296605774791232 pubmed: 15751143 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/habit/2005/00000010/00000002/art00001
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Germination of white radish and buckwheat under low pressure in closed environment Space Utilization research 21:315-318

2005

T.M.Akiba Hinokuchi, H. Hashimoto

publication: Space Utiliz. Res.

Partial Abstract

Germination Rate of White radish and Buckwheat under Low Pressure in Closed Environment | CiNii Research Germination Rate of White radish and Buckwheat under Low Pressure in Closed Environment 21 315-318, 2005 ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1574231875025436032
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Evaluation and implementation of an advanced life support (ALS) menu for closed ecology experiment facilities (CEEF)

2005

T. Masuda, T. Ogasawara, E. Harashima, Y. Tako, K. Nitta

publication: Eco-Engineering

Abstract

We developed a menu for Advanced Life Support (ALS), based on the cultivable crops list on the Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF). Recipes of the menu were evaluated using indexes including acceptability, nutritional contents, fresh weight of necessary ingredients, necessary cultivation area of each crop, supplemental seasonings and spices. The results showed that Japanese subjects (n = 10-27) found most of the recipes acceptable. The necessary cultivation area to serve each recipe once a week varied from 0.03 m2 to 11.85 m2. Unexpectedly, the required area of each recipe did not correlate with energy (R2 = 0.02). The most correlated nutrient was lipid (R2 = 0.52). The menu was implemented in a pre-habitation experiment lasting for one week in the CEEF. Average food preparation time was more than 4 hours day-1. These results contribute to development of the cycle-menu and plantation plan for ALS experiments and for future planetary mission planning.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku.17.55 link: http://jlc.jst.go.jp/DN/JALC/00246129558?from=Google
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The aim of closed habitation experiments using the Mini-earth and its schedule

2005

K. Nitta, I. AigaI

publication: unknown

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Volatile organic compound analysis (VOCA): S system for evaluating atmospheric contaminants on plant growth

2005

G.W. Stutte, P.W. Fowler, I. Eraso, L. Koss

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

A set of contained environment chambers have been designed to study the effects of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) on plant growth and development. The Volatile Organic Compound Analysis (VOCA) system consists of six Lexan chambers, each with independent VOC monitoring and control capacities. The VOC exposure chambers are located within a larger controlled environment chamber (CEC) which provides a common air temperature, photoperiod, and light control. Relative humidity, CO2 concentration, and VOC concentration of the atmosphere are independently controlled in each VOCA exposure chambers. CO2, air temperature, relative humidity and PPF are continuously monitored with software developed using IOControl™ and IODisplay™.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2771 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2771/
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Plan of closed habitation experiments and material flow in Closed Ecosystem Experiment Facilities

2005

Y. Tako, R. Arai, T. Tani, G. Honda, O. Komatsubara

publication: Eco-Engineering

Partial Abstract

Plan of closed habitation experiments and material flow in Closed Ecosystem Experiment Facilities | CiNii Research Plan of closed habitation experiments and material flow in Closed Ecosystem Experiment Facilities ...
link: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1571698600171366784
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Flows of carbon, oxygen and water within Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities, CEEF calculated from preliminary experiment data

2005

Y. Tako, T. Tani, R. Arai, G. Honda, O. Komatsubara, M. Shinohara, S. Tsuga, T. Masuda, K. Nitta

publication: Journal of Agricultural Meteorology

Abstract

bstract 　“Closed　Ecology　Experiment　Facilities”(CEEF) were constructed at the Institute for Environmental Sciences in Japan to conduct stable carbon isotope tracer experiments for improvement of prediction models on dynamics of radioactive carbon in the environment. A model closed ecosystem including two people, two goats and crops (150 m2), is to be established for four months yearly from 2005 to 2009 in the CEEF. In the experiment conducted under closed conditions in 2003, rice, soybean, peanut and safflower were cultivated sequentially in the closed “Plant Module”(PM) of the CEEF. Transplanting (or seeding) and harvest of each crop at regular intervals were maintained during 28 days, and flows of CO2, O2 and carbon to and from the crops were analyzed. Gas exchange rate and carbon balance of six female goats were determined in a gastight chamber during three or four days using an open-flow measurement system, Human habitation tests in the CEEF lasting five days were conducted under ventilated condition in 2003. Gas exchange of people was calculated using equations predicting gas exchange rate from energy consumption estimated from time records of activity, age and body weight, and respiration quotient (RQ = CO2/O2) measured during experiments conducted outside the CEEF. Total CO2 and O2 exchange for two goats and two men was estimated to be 62 and 71% of those of crops, respectively. It was deduced from the estimation that carbon balances of these three ecosystem components will be equivalent in the long-term. Water balance of crops was also measured or estimated for the 28-day cultivation period. Water balance of animals was also measured or estimated based on closed holding experiments. Water balance of human was measured during the five-day habitation study. The flows of water for the crops, animals and human in the CEEF system were estimated for the most part successfully, although small inconsistence exist.
doi: 10.2480/agrmet.1099 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/agrmet/60/6/60_1099/_article/-char/ja/
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Influence of high concentrations of mineral salts on production process and NaCl accumulation by Salicornia europaea plants as a constituent of the LSS phototroph link

2005

N.A. Tikhomirova,S.A. Ushakova,N.P. Kovaleva,I.V. Gribovskaya,A.A. Tikhomirov

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Use of halophytes (salt-tolerant vegetation), in a particular vegetable Salicornia europaea plants which are capable of utilizing NaCl in rather high concentrations, is one of possible means of NaCl incorporation into mass exchange of bioregenerative life support systems. In preliminary experiments it was shown that S. europaea plants, basically, could grow on urine pretreated with physicochemical processing and urease-enzyme decomposing of urea with the subsequent ammonia distillation. But at the same time inhibition of the growth process of the plants was observed. The purpose of the given work was to find out the influence of excessive quantities of some mineral elements contained in products of physicochemical processing of urine on the production process and NaCl accumulation by S. europaea plants. As the content of mineral salts in the human liquid wastes (urine) changed within certain limits, two variants of experimental solutions were examined. In the first variant, the concentration of mineral salts was equivalent to the minimum salt content in the urine and was: K – 1.5 g/l, P – 0.5 g/l, S – 0.5 g/l, Mg – 0.07 g/l, Ca – 0.2 g/l. In the second experimental variant, the content of mineral salts corresponded to the maximum salt content in urine and was the following: K – 3.0 g/l, P – 0.7 g/l, S – 1.2 g/l, Mg – 0.2 g/l, Ca – 0.97 g/l. As the control, the Tokarev nutrient solution containing nitrogen in the form of a urea, and the Knop nutrient solution with nitrogen in the nitrate form were used. N quantity in all four variants made up 177 mg/l. Air temperature was 24 °C, illumination was continuous. Light intensity was 690 μmol/m2s of photosynthetically active radiation. NaCl concentration in solutions was 1%. Our researches showed that the dry aboveground biomass of an average plant of the first variant practically did not differ from the control and totaled 11 g. In the second variant, S. europaea productivity decreased and the dry aboveground biomass of an average plant totaled 8 g. The increase of K quantity in the experimental solutions resulted in an elevated content of the element in the plants. The increase of K uptake in the second experimental variant was accompanied by a 30–50% decrease of Na content in comparison with the other variants. Comparative Na content in the other variants was practically identical. N, Mg and P content in the control and experimental variants was also practically identical. The increase of S quantity in the second experimental variant also increased S uptake by the plants. But Ca quantity, accumulated in aboveground plants biomass in the experimental variants was lower than in the control. NaCl uptake by plants, depending on the concentration of mineral salts in the experimental solutions, ranged from 8 g (maximum salt content) up to 15 g (minimum salt content) on a plant growth area that totaled 0.032 m2.
Thus, high concentrations of mineral salts simulating the content of mineral salts contained in urine did not result in a significant decrease of S. europaea productivity. The present work also considers the influence of higher light intensity concentrations on productivity and NaCl accumulation by S. europaea plants grown on experimental solutions with high salt content.

doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2005.01.055 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117705001249
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Evaluation of carrots (Daucus carota L.) growth in two hydroponic systems for inclusion in NASA’s advanced food system

2005

P.M. Gichuhi, D. Mortley, E.M. Bromfield, K. Kpomplekou-A, A.C. Bovell-Benjamin

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

In contribution towards the screening of eight hydroponically grown carrots, some biochemical, physical and sensory properties of the roots were evaluated. The carrots had been grown under two nutrient delivery systems, Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) and Microporous Tube Membrane nutrient delivery System (MTMS). Biochemical measures conducted included, moisture, fat and β-carotene contents, and the physical measures were texture and color. For the NFT- and MTMS-grown carrots, Nantes Touchan (91%) and Nanco Hybrid (87%), respectively, had the highest moisture contents. Fat contents for all the cultivars grown in both systems ranged from 0.1 to 0.4%. In the NFT-grown carrots, Baby Spike and Juwaroot had the highest and lowest β-carotene contents, 8777 and 248 µg/100 g, respectively. For the MTMS-grown carrots, Thumbelina had the highest β-carotene content (7840 µg/100 g). However, the lowest β-carotene value for the MTMS-grown carrots was 3059 µg/100 g. Baby Spike and Nantes Touchan grown in MTMS were the carrots lightest in color (L* = 63). Kandulus and Nanco Hybrid grown in MTMS and NFT, respectively, had the lowest L* values. For the NFT and MTMS-grown carrots, Juwaroot and Nantes Touchan, respectively, were the most firm carrots. Consumer survey revealed that most of the participants (82%) were not aware of hydroponic carrots. However, 61% indicated that they would buy hydroponic carrots if they are healthier. Out of the three hydroponic carrots tested, Baby Spike (MTMS) was most preferred by consumers. Overall, the commercial carrot was better than the hydroponic carrots in many aspects, though in some cases not by far.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-3114 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-3114/
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Variability of virus attachment patterns to buterhead lettuce

2005

Everardo Vega,Jeanon Smith,Jay Garland,Anabelle Matos,Suresh D. Pillai

publication: Journal of Food Protection

Abstract

Enteric viruses account for most foodborne illness in the United States. The objective of this study was to determine whether the isoelectric point (pI) of viruses such as feline calicivirus (FCV), echovirus 11, and bacteriophages φX174 and MS2 had any effect on their attachment to butterhead lettuce. The adsorption of virus particles to the lettuce was variable. Bacteriophage MS2 was the only virus that fit the current Derjaguin-Landau-Verway-Overbeek model of virus attachment. Echovirus 11 had the highest affinity to lettuce surface. Echovirus 11 appeared to exhibit reversible attachment above its pI, whereas below its pI strong adsorption was observed. Adsorption of FCV was at its maximum above its pI. Bacteriophage φX174 exhibited the most complex adsorption pattern, with attachment occurring only at the pH extremes (pH 3.0 and 8.0). These results suggest the current model for virus adsorption to sediment does not adequately explain the attachment of virus to lettuce. Importantly, the results indirectly suggest that current sample processing methods to recover viruses from lettuce may differentially select for the recovery of only certain virus types.
doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-68.10.2112 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0362028X22011851
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Development and operation of a space-oriented salad machine 'Phytoconveyer'

2005

YuA Berkovich, N.M. Krivobok, S.O. Smolianina, A.N. Erokhin, H.G. Levine

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Installation of a ‘salad machine’; in the International Space Station (ISS) will be the first step toward long-term biological regeneration of food during space missions. Salad crops have demonstrated promise for providing dietary supplements and psychosocial benefits. A cylindrical conveyer-type design (called the Phytoconveyer) under development exhibits high productivity and low energy and crew time demands. The overall dimensions are 54 × 59 × 40 cm. Power consumption is 0.25 kW and the volume of the plant growth chamber is 0.09 m3. The Phytoconveyer includes a cylindrical planting surface area comprised of six root modules. Each root module contains a porous tube wrapped in a fibrous ion-exchange resin substrate (BIONA V-3) enclosed within a black plastic cover with an open slot on the top for seed insertion. The total outer diameter of the root module is 5 cm. The Phytoconveyer uses an ‘ebb and flow’; delivery system to supply water to the six root modules in conjunction with a control program. Light is provided by red (660 nm) and blue (470 nm) LEDs on the internal surfaces of the spiral cylinder in a nine to one ratio (providing 350 μmol·m−2·s−1 PAR 4 cm below the light source). The total illuminated crop area inside the Phytoconveyer is ca 0.4 m2. In ground tests with a 24-hr photoperiod, the Phytoconveyer provided up to 300 g of fresh edible salad biomass every 4-5 days. The unit has been designed to be incorporated into the interior of the ISS Russian segment. This work has been supported by the Moscow office of the International Science and Technology Center (ISTC Project No. 2137).
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2842 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2842/
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Equivalencies and applicability of advanced life support technologies to exploration missions

2005

Alan E. Drysdale

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Exploration missions are expected to reach the 100-day class by Spiral 3, 1000-day class for Spiral 4, and perhaps longer for later spirals. Depending on the equivalencies achieved, bioregenerative life support can offer cost effectiveness as well as autonomy for 1000-day class missions, and will need to be demonstrated in space on Spiral 3 missions to support application to the longer missions. Several other technologies can also reduce the cost of life support in space by factors in the single digits, or perhaps even an order of magnitude. However, these improvements will not come easily, requiring advances in both life support technology and mission infrastructure.
Equivalencies (infrastructure cost factors) are recommended for the 2020 to 2030 timeframe anticipated for Spirals 3 and 4. Cost effectiveness of several life support related technologies are assessed, and a life support metric is calculated based on this data. Critical development efforts to support these capabilities are identified.

doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2915 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2915/
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A low equivalent system mass plant growth unit for space exploration

2005

R. C. Morrow,R.W. Remiker,M. J. Mischnick,L.K. Tuominen,M.C. Lee,T.M. Crabb

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The VEGGIE unit is a deployable, low-resource plant growth system that can provide a source of fresh food and crew recreation on long duration space missions. VEGGIE can be stowed in 10% of its deployed volume; a single middeck locker equivalent can stow 1.0m2 of growing area. To reduce complexity, VEGGIE utilizes the ambient environment for temperature control and as a source of CO2. The lighting subsystem uses LEDs that provide a minimum light level of 300 µmol m⁻²s⁻¹, spectral quality control, and a long operating life in a low profile package. The root zone is a compressible fabric mat. Each VEGGIE module has 0.17 m2 of growing area and can be varied in height from 5 to 45 cm. The mass, including the lighting subsystem and root mat, is 4.7 kg. On the ISS, VEGGIE can mount in the aisle, or in an EXPRESS rack.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2843 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2843/
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Carbon dioxide scrubbers for controlling the gaseous composition of spaceflight plant growth chambers.--Design trades and test results

2005

Colleen Higgins,James Clawson,Juniper Jairala,Peter Journeay-Kaler,Jackson Lee,Alex Hoehn,Louis Stodieck

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Small spaceflight life science experiments, such as plant growth chambers and animal habitats, operate in unique environments. The experiments are often sealed systems that control atmospheric constituents, temperature, and humidity. Chemical scrubbers can be an efficient and reliable way to actively remove carbon dioxide for shorter experiment durations because they do not require power or complex technologies to operate. Several commercially available scrubbers were tested in both low and high humidity environments, and at low concentration levels of carbon dioxide similar to those found in plant chamber applications, to find a scrubber that was both effective and efficient for use in small life sciences experiments.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2954 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2954/
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Estimation of flows of carbon and oxygen in the CEEF system based on data collected in a stable phase of sequential crop cultivation lasting more than 100 days

2005

Yasuhiro Tako,Ryuji Arai,Takashi Tani,Keiji Nitta

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Closed habitation experiments are to be carried out using Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF) from 2005 to 2009. The last target of duration of closed habitation is four months. Preliminary study and testing have been conducted in order to start the closed habitation experiments. In 2004 as the last year of the preliminary test phase for the 2005–2009 experiments, periodical harvesting from staggered cultivation of 23 crops including rice, soybean, peanut, and sugar beet was continued during 103 days. In order to balance with metabolisms of humans (named as “eco-nauts”) and animals, it is necessary to stabilize production of edible and inedible biomass, CO2 uptake and O2 production of crops. Although biomass production decreased rapidly during first five weeks of the 103-day period, it was relatively stable during last ten weeks. Average major foodstuffs in the harvested edible biomass met the requirement of two Eco-nauts although several minor ingredients were insufficient. It is considered that the underestimation of O2 production of crops compared with CO2 uptake came from troubles that air leak was somewhat greater than previous experiments and that O2 sensors in the Plant Chambers (PCs) were unstable. The leak was found at the O2 separator and repaired, and all O2 sensors were replaced to more stable sensors. CO2 uptake and O2 production of the crops (150 m2) were determined to be 99.9 mol day^-1 and 104.8 mol day^-1, respectively, based on biomass and ingredient analysis. Total CO2 and O2 exchange for two goats and two men were 63 and 66% of those of crops, respectively. Flows of carbon and oxygen in the material circulation system including crops, eco-nauts, goats and physical/chemical (P/C) part were calculated using these data. The analysis showed that the waste processing systems of the Closed Plant Experiment Facility (CPEF) and the Closed Animal and Habitation Experiment Facility (CAHEF) will proceed solid waste of 307 g day^-1 (10.8 mol C day^-1) and 651 g day^-1 (25.8 mol C day^-1), respectively, and that the CO2 separator of the CAHEF will separate 89.1 mol CO2 day^-1. The result obtained in this study confirmed that crops will serve sufficient biomass and O2 to the two eco-nauts and two Shiba goats in the 2005 experiments.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-3108 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-3108/
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Evaluation of the Possibility of Using Human and Plant Wastes in Bioregenerative Life Support Systems

2005

A. A. Tikhomirov,S. A. Ushakova,Yu. A. Kudenko,N. P. Kovaleva,I. G. Zolotukhin,N. A. Tikhomirova,V. V. Velichko,J. B. Gros,Ch. Lasseur

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

At present there is no valid approach to the problem of incorporating human solid and liquid wastes and plants wastes into the organic matter turnover of bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS). As a rule, these waste products are currently either stored inside a system or subjected to processing by physicochemical methods. Thus, it is too early to speak of a full value return of human and plant wastes in intrasystem matter turnover. This study discusses the combination of physicochemical and biological methods for human and plant waste utilization allowing an increased degree of closure of matter turnover. The human solid wastes following physicochemical processing were included in intrasystem turnover together with plants wastes by using biological oxidation in soil-like substrate (SLS). The next stage was the inclusion of salt-tolerant plants (halophytes) into the BLSS so that mineral elements contained in urine could be recycled into matter turnover. The possibility of using the abovementioned methods in BLSS is discussed.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2981 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2981/
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Characterization of nutrient solution changes during flow through media

2005

Joey H. Norikane,John C. Sager,Raymond M. Wheeler,Gary W. Stutte,Hyeon-Hye Kim

publication: SAE transactions

Abstract

A research project has begun to identify the best cultivar for strawberry production as part of an advanced life support system for space. For the cultivar trials, hydroponie systems will be used, so the plants can be grown optimally under controlled environmental conditions and without water stress. The objectives of this project were to determine changes in nutrient solution characteristics, specifically dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), hydrogen ion concentration (pH), and temperature, versus four different flow rates (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.6 L-min"1) at fixed distances in the hydroponie channel with and without media. Three media treatments were used: 1) no media, 2) arcillite, and 3) perlite. The results showed that the highest flow rate (i.e., 3.6 L min^-1) exhibited the most uniform conditions of all nutrient solution characteristics and for each of the media treatments over the 7.92 m length of channel. Additional system testing is required to determine how the nutrient solution characteristics are affected by the inclusion of plants.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44682700
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Temperature and humidity control capabilities and limitations of a spaceflight plant growth chamber

2005

Alex Hoehn,James Clawson,Jake Freeman,Colleen Higgins,Chris Madsen,Louis Stodieck

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Environmentally sealed or isolated life sciences experiments such as plant growth chambers or animal habitats often require active temperature and humidity control. The interaction between the temperature and humidity control system, and performance limitations are shown based on experimental data using a small spaceflight plant growth chamber. Limited availability of electric power, and the chosen control system implementation constrain the obtainable temperature and humidity setpoint combinations.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2845 link: https://www.sae.org/gsdownload/?prodCd=2005-01-2845
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Scallion (Allium fistulosum L.) pungency regulated by genetic makeup and environmental conditions (light and CO2)

2005

Lanfang Levine,Jan Bauer,Sharon Edney,Jeffrey Richards,Neil Yorio,Kunyu Li,Paul W. Paré,Ray Wheeler

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

To facilitate the selection of a palatable and functional food, eight green onions grown under either cool-white fluorescent lamps (CWF) or high pressure sodium lamps (HPS) were compared for their pungency, tissue nitrate and sulfate status. The effect of lighting intensity and atmospheric CO2 levels on pungency of a selected cultivar was also investigated. Results demonstrate that there was a difference in pungency not only among cultivars, but also between tissue types and developmental stages. The pungency was inversely correlated with nitrate level in tissue, and light quality had profound impact on tissue nitrate level. Pungency in the pseudobulb and leaf of green onion responded differently to increased light intensity and elevated CO2. The effect could be mostly explained by the relative accumulation rates of the flavor precursors and biomass. The combination of low light and high CO2 conditions anticipated in enclosed space environments provided equivalent amount of edible biomass, and quality of food in terms of pungency as in the combination of high light and ambient CO2. This study raised several interesting questions. For instance, should green onion be consumed immediately after harvest due to the high nitrate level, or should different horticultural practices (nutrient and light regime) be implemented to reduce the nitrate level? What effect would these strategies have on the vegetable's other quality traits? Does alternative lighting have repercussion for food quality, particularly in nitrate level?
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2770 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2770/
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Effect of light intensity and temperature on yield of salad crops for space exploration

2005

Jeffrey T. Richards,Sharon L. Edney,Neil C. Yorio,Gary W. Stutte,Matthew D. Sisko,Nate Cranston,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The candidate crops that have been considered by NASA for providing moderate quantities of supplemental food for crew's consumption during near term or long duration missions include minimally processed “salad” species. Lettuce (cv. Flandria), radish (cv. Cherry Bomb II) and green onion (cv. Kinka) plants were grown under cool-white fluorescent (CWF) lamps with light intensities of 8.6, 17.2, or 25.8 mol m−2 d−1, at air temperatures of 25 and 28 °C, 50% relative humidity, and 1200 µmol mol−1 CO2. Following 35 days growth, final edible mass yields were recorded. All three species grown at 25 °C showed an increase in edible fresh mass and growth rates as light intensity increased. When grown at 28 °C however, the edible fresh mass and crop growth rate of radish, lettuce and onion was significantly reduced at all light intensities when compared to yields at 25 °C. Overall, results indicated that all three crops were sensitive to changes in light intensity and temperature. Therefore understanding the interactions of these environmental factors on crop performance is crucial to the success of future missions which incorporate plant-based life support technologies.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2820 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2820/
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Designing a reusable ethylene filter cartridge for plant flight hardware: Characterization of thermally desorbing compounds

2005

O Monje,JT Richards,I Eraso,T. P. Griffin,K. C. Anderson,J. C. Sager

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The chemical specificity of several adsorbents, capable of being recycled by thermal desorption, was determined using volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found in ISS cabin air. These VOC adsorbents will be used to design a reusable filter to control ethylene in plant growth chambers and other STS/ISS biological payloads. A reusable filter to remove plant-produced ethylene from plant growth chambers could help minimize the mass and power use of plant flight hardware. Spaceflight-rated plant growth chambers employ either passive or active catalytic scrubbers for maintaining acceptable levels of VOCs. Passive systems require consumables, while active systems require power and their performance can be degraded in high humidity environments. Each adsorbent was loaded with known amounts of VOCs at a known flow rate. The filtering capacity and chemical specificity of each compound was determined from measurements pre- and post-filter VOC concentration. Gas samples were analyzed in a gas chromatograph using an FID detector. The design of the filter consisted in determining the amount of each filter bed, such that a single cartridge can last for four days with a normal plant VOC load in a 30L, 0.25 m² chamber.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2953 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2953/
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Inflatable transparent structures for Mars greenhouse applications

2005

J. M. Clawson,A. Hoehn,R. M. Wheeler

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

It is proposed to employ a greenhouse for life support on the Martian surface to reduce the equivalent system mass (ESM) penalties encountered with electrical crop lighting. The ESM of a naturally lit plant growth system compares favorably to an electrically lit system when corrections for area are made based on available light levels. A transparent structure should be more efficient at collecting insolation than collectors due to the diffusivity of the Mars atmosphere and inherent transmission losses encountered with fiber optics. The need to provide a pressurized environment for the plants indicates the use of an inflatable structure. Materials and design concepts are reviewed for their applicability to an inflatable greenhouse.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2846 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2846/
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Porous media matric potential and water content measurements during parabolic flight

2005

Joey H. Norikane,Scott B. Jones,Susan L. Steinberg,Howard G. Levine,Dani Or

publication: Habitation (Elmsford, N.Y.)

Abstract

Control of water and air in the root zone of plants remains a challenge in the microgravity environment of space. Due to limited flight opportunities, research aimed at resolving microgravity porous media fluid dynamics must often be conducted on Earth. The NASA KC-135 reduced gravity flight program offers an opportunity for Earth-based researchers to study physical processes in a variable gravity environment. The objectives of this study were to obtain measurements of water content and matric potential during the parabolic profile flown by the KC-135 aircraft. The flight profile provided 20-25 s of microgravity at the top of the parabola, while pulling 1.8 g at the bottom. The soil moisture sensors (Temperature and Moisture Acquisition System: Orbital Technologies, Madison, WI) used a heat-pulse method to indirectly estimate water content from heat dissipation. Tensiometers were constructed using a stainless steel porous cup with a pressure transducer and were used to measure the matric potential of the medium. The two types of sensors were placed at different depths in a substrate compartment filled with 1-2 mm Turface (calcined clay). The ability of the heat-pulse sensors to monitor overall changes in water content in the substrate compartment decreased with water content. Differences in measured water content data recorded at 0, 1, and 1.8 g were not significant. Tensiometer readings tracked pressure differences due to the hydrostatic force changes with variable gravity. The readings may have been affected by changes in cabin air pressure that occurred during each parabola. Tensiometer porous membrane conductivity (function of pore size) and fluid volume both influence response time. Porous media sample height and water content influence time-to-equilibrium, where shorter samples and higher water content achieve faster equilibrium. Further testing is needed to develop these sensors for space flight applications.
doi: 10.3727/154296605774791241 pubmed: 15751144 link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/habit/2005/00000010/00000002/art00006
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Potential effects of biogenic compound production on human health in closed life support systems

2005

E. Paul Larrat,Gary W. Stutte,R. M. Wheeler

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Extended habitation of space may include the cultivation of plants for atmospheric regeneration, water purification and food production. Plants produce bioactive compounds that may be released into the atmosphere as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are produced through a variety of plant processes and vary greatly in chemistry and quantity though a plants life cycle. These compounds include numerous biogenic species including alcohols, isoprene, monoterpines, acids, carbonyls, alkanes and alkenes. In a closed environment, VOCs may create a toxic environment for either humans or other plants. Human responses to biogenic compounds may include acute toxicity, chronic toxic toxicity, and allergenic effects. Chronic exposure to low concentrations of biogenic compounds, as might be common during extended space habitation missions, is largely unstudied and of particular interest. The objectives of this paper are to provide an overview of the salient issues regarding potential production of biogenic VOC's, to identify potential responses of humans to these compounds and to assess the overall risk of exposure using epidemiological methodologies. A series of monographs were developed for the most common biogenic VOC's produced for Advanced Life Support (ALS) candidate crops. The monographs describe the compounds, reported sources, SMAC or TLV exposure limit (if established), and reported human responses and toxicity levels. In addition, biogenic responses on plant production systems are reported, if known. Finally, an assessment of potential risk on long duration habitation missions is provided.
doi: 10.4271/2005-01-2772 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-2772/
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Material balance and diet in bioregenerative life support systems: Connection with coefficient of closure

2005

N.S. Manukovsky,V.S. Kovalev,L.A. Somova,Yu.L. Gurevich,M.G. Sadovsky

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) with different coefficients of closure are considered. The 66.2% coefficient of closure achieved in "BIOS-3" facility experiments has been taken as a base value. The increase in coefficient of closure up to 72.6-93.0% is planned due to use of soil-like substrate (SLS) and concentrating of urine. Food values were estimated both in a base variant ("BIOS-3"), and with increases in the coefficient of closure. It is shown that food requirements will be more fully satisfied by internal crop production with an increase in the coefficient of closure of the BLSS. Changes of massflow rates on an 'input-output' and inside BLSS are considered. Equations of synthesis and degradation of organic substances in BLSS were examined using a stoichiometric model. The paper shows that at incomplete closure of BLSS containing SLS there is a problem of nitrogen balancing. To compensate for the removal of nitrogen from the system in urine and feces, it is necessary to introduce food and a nitrogen-containing additive.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2005.01.002 pubmed: 16175682 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117705000578
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Acclimation of plant populations to shade: Photosynthesis, respiration, and carbon use efficiency

2005

Jonathan M. Frantz,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Journal of the American Society for …

Partial Abstract

Cloudy days cause an abrupt reduction in daily photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), but we have a poor understanding of how plants acclimate to this change. We used a unique 10-chamber, steady-state, gas-exchange system to continuously measure daily photosynthesis and night respiration of populations of a starch accumulator [tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Micro-Tina)] and a sucrose accumulator [lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Grand Rapids)] over 42 days. All measurements were done at elevated CO2 (1200 µmol ...
link: https://www.academia.edu/download/88128764/article-p918.pdf
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Crop yield and light/energy efficiency in a closed ecological system: Laboratory biosphere experiments with wheat and sweet potato

2005

M. Nelson, W.F. Dempster, S. Silverstone, A. Alling, J.P. Allen, M. van Thillo

publication: Advances in space research : the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)

Abstract

Two crop growth experiments in the soil-based closed ecological facility, Laboratory Biosphere, were conducted from 2003 to 2004 with candidate space life support crops. Apogee wheat (Utah State University variety) was grown, planted at two densities, 400 and 800 seeds m-2. The lighting regime for the wheat crop was 16 h of light-8 h dark at a total light intensity of around 840 micromoles m-2 s-1 and 48.4 mol m-2 d-1 over 84 days. Average biomass was 1395 g m-2, 16.0 g m-2 d-1 and average seed production was 689 g m-2 and 7.9 g m-2 d-1. The less densely planted side was more productive than the denser planting, with 1634 g m-2 and 18.8 g m-2 d-1 of biomass vs. 1156 g m-2 and 13.3 g m-2 d-1; and a seed harvest of 812.3 g m-2 and 9.3 g m-2 d-1 vs. 566.5 g m-2 and 6.5 g m-2 d-1. Harvest index was 0.49 for the wheat crop. The experiment with sweet potato used TU-82-155 a compact variety developed at Tuskegee University. Light during the sweet potato experiment, on a 18 h on/6 h dark cycle, totaled 5568 total moles of light per square meter in 126 days for the sweet potatoes, or an average of 44.2 mol m-2 d-1. Temperature regime was 28 +/- 3 degrees C day/22 +/- 4 degrees C night. Sweet potato tuber yield was 39.7 kg wet weight, or an average of 7.4 kg m-2, and 7.7 kg dry weight of tubers since dry weight was about 18.6% wet weight. Average per day production was 58.7 g m-2 d-1 wet weight and 11.3 g m-2 d-1. For the wheat, average light efficiency was 0.34 g biomass per mole, and 0.17 g seed per mole. The best area of wheat had an efficiency of light utilization of 0.51 g biomass per mole and 0.22 g seed per mole. For the sweet potato crop, light efficiency per tuber wet weight was 1.33 g mol-1 and 0.34 g dry weight of tuber per mole of light. The best area of tuber production had 1.77 g mol-1 wet weight and 0.34 g mol-1 of light dry weight. The Laboratory Biosphere experiment's light efficiency was somewhat higher than the USU field results but somewhat below greenhouse trials at comparable light levels, and the best portion of the crop at 0.22 g mol-1 was in-between those values. Sweet potato production was overall close to 50% higher than trials using hydroponic methods with TU-82-155 at NASA JSC. Compared to projected yields for the Mars on Earth life support system, these wheat yields were about 15% higher, and the sweet potato yields averaged over 80% higher.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2005.01.016 pubmed: 16175676 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117705000748
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The effects of community versus single strain inoculants on the biocontrol of Salmonella and microbial community dynamics in alfalfa sprouts

2005

Anabelle Matos,Jay L. Garland

publication: Journal of food protection

Abstract

Potential biological control inoculants, Pseudomonas fluorescens 2-79 and microbial communities derived from market sprouts or laboratory-grown alfalfa sprouts, were introduced into alfalfa seeds with and without a Salmonella inoculum. We examined their ability to inhibit the growth of this foodborne pathogen and assess the relative effects of the inoculants on the alfalfa microbial community structure and function. Alfalfa seeds contaminated with a Salmonella cocktail were soaked for 2 h in bacterial suspensions from each inoculant tested. Inoculated alfalfa seeds were grown for 7 days and sampled during days 1, 3, and 7. At each sampling, alfalfa sprouts were sonicated for 7 min to recover microflora from the surface, and the resulting suspensions were diluted and plated on selective and nonselective media. Total bacterial counts were obtained using acridine orange staining, and the percentage culturability was calculated. Phenotypic potential of sprout-associated microbial communities inoculated with biocontrol treatments was assessed using community-level physiological profiles based on patterns of use of 95 separate carbon sources in Biolog plates. Community-level physiological profiles were also determined using oxygen-sensitive fluorophore in BD microtiter plates to examine functional patterns in these communities. No significant differences in total and mesophilic aerobe microbial cell density or microbial richness resulting from the introduction of inoculants on alfalfa seeds with and without Salmonella were observed. P. fluorescens 2-79 exhibited the greatest reduction in the growth of Salmonella early during alfalfa growth (4.22 log at day 1), while the market sprout inoculum had the reverse effect, resulting in a maximum log reduction (5.48) of Salmonella on day 7. Community-level physiological profiles analyses revealed that market sprout communities peaked higher and faster compared with the other inoculants tested. These results suggest that different modes of actions of single versus microbial consortia biocontrol treatments may be involved.
doi: 10.4315/0362-028x-68.1.40 pubmed: 15690802 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0362028X22008985
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Crop production in an extraterrestrial (controlled-environment microgravity) environment

2005

J.J. Prenger, H.H. Kim, J.T. Richards, O. Monje, H.G. Levine, N. Yorio, G. Stutte, R. Wheeler, J. Sager

publication: Journal of Agricultural Meteorology

Abstract

Human space exploration missions require life support systems to sustain the crew. Plants help regulate the earth’s atmospheric and terrestrial environment; similarly, plants could be used in a closed system in space: cleaning carbon dioxide from the air, breaking down liquid and solid wastes, and producing fresh food. Advanced Life Support systems would use plants as part of a bioregenerative system. For space flight applications, the systems must be low in mass and energy consumption, and must be designed for reduced gravity operations. Four areas of research are reviewed in this article related to ALS system design, crop physiology and biology. The Water Offset Nutrient Delivery ExpeRiment (WONDER) will be conducted on the Space Shuttle to evaluate gravity-independent hydroponic systems and optimum water content targets for microgravity crop production. The Photosynthesis Experiment and System Testing and Operation (PESTO) project studied the photosynthesis rates and physiological responses of crops germinated and grown in microgravity. A project to study crop production systems in closed, controlled environments for multiple crops in the same root and aerial environment (International Space Station baseline conditions) is described. Finally, efficient light emitting diode (LED) lighting is being studied to determine plant photobiological responses to different light qualities.
doi: 10.2480/agrmet.385 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/agrmet/60/5/60_385/_article/-char/ja/
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Measurement of hydraulic characteristics of porous media used to grow plants in microgravity

2005

Susan L. Steinberg,Darwin Poritz

publication: Soil Science Society of America journal. Soil Science Society of America

Abstract

Understanding the effect of gravity on hydraulic properties of plant growth medium is essential for growing plants in space. The suitability of existing models to simulate hydraulic properties of porous medium is uncertain due to limited understanding of fundamental mechanisms controlling water and air transport in microgravity. The objective of this research was to characterize saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K) of two particle-size distributions of baked ceramic aggregate using direct measurement techniques compatible with microgravity. Steady state (Method A) and instantaneous profile measurement (Method B) methods for K were used in a single experimental unit with horizontal flow through thin sections of porous medium providing an earth-based analog to microgravity. Comparison between methods was conducted using a crossover experimental design compatible with limited resources of space flight. Satiated (natural saturation) K ranged from 0.09 to 0.12 cm s-1 and 0.5 to >1 cm s-1 for 0.25- to 1- and 1- to 2-mm media, respectively. The K at the interaggregate/intraaggregate transition was approximately 10(-4) cm s-1 for both particle-size distributions. Significant differences in log(10)K due to method and porous medium were less than one order of magnitude and were attributed to variability in air entrapment. The van Genuchten/Mualem parametric models provided an adequate prediction of K of the interaggregate pore space, using residual water content for that pore space. The instantaneous profile method covers the range of water contents relevant to plant growth using fewer resources than Method A, all advantages for space flight where mass, volume, and astronaut time are limited.
doi: 10.2136/sssaj2005.0301 pubmed: 16052740 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/sssaj2005.0301
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Iodine toxicity in a plant-solution system with and without humic acid

2005

C. L. Mackowiak,P. R. Grossl,K. L. Cook

publication: Plant and soil

Abstract

Aqueous iodine (I_2(aq)) is a potent disinfectant that is being evaluated as a soil sanitizer for agricultural fields and a water purification treatment for the International Space Station. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants were grown in solution culture containing different I compounds at approximately 0, 18, or 30 μM total I [I_2(aq) + iodide (I−)] consisting of 0, 6, and 20 μM I as I_2(aq), respectively. In addition, humic acid (HA) was added to half the treatments. Most I_2(aq) was electrochemically reduced to the endpoint metabolite I− within 24 h with HA promoting the response. Plants receiving the highest dose of I_2(aq), particularly those in treatments without HA, had the least growth and the greatest biomass I concentrations. Roots from both I_2(aq) treatments without HA were periodically sampled for bacteria. Viable and direct caints of bacterial cell density declined with increasing I_2(aq) concentrations within the first hour after treatment application. However, cell densities recovered within 96 hours and eventually surpassed the control treatment cell density. Additionally, the resulting high viable: direct count density ratio suggests that opportunistic species likely dominated the post I_2(aq) environment.
doi: 10.1007/s11104-004-0401-6 link: https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s1...
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Effects of microbial community diversity on the survival of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the wheat rhizosphere

2005

A. Matos,L. Kerkhof,J. L. Garland

publication: Microbial ecology

Abstract

Ecological theory suggests that microbial communities with greater microbial diversity would be less susceptible to invasion by potential opportunistic pathogens. We investigated whether the survival of the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the wheat rhizosphere would be affected by the presence of natural and constructed microbial communities of various diversity levels. Three levels of microbial community diversity were derived from wheat roots by a dilution/extinction approach. These wheat rhizosphere inocula, as well as a gnotobiotic microbial community consisting of seven culturable wheat rhizobacterial isolates, were introduced into the nutrient solution of hydroponically grown wheat plants on the day of planting. Phenotypic characterization of the culturable microbial communities on R2A medium, Shannon microbial diversity index, community-level physiological profiles, and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphisms were used to assess the varying microbial diversity levels. At day 7 the roots were invaded with P. aeruginosa and the number of P. aeruginosa colony forming units per root were measured at day 14. The average number of surviving P. aeruginosa cells was 3.52, 4.90, 7.18, 6.65 log(10) cfu/root in the high, medium, low, and gnotobiotic microbial community diversity level treatments, respectively. The invasibility of the rhizosphere communities by P. aeruginosa was inversely related to the level of diversity from the dilution extinction gradient. The gnotobiotic community did not confer protection against P. aeruginosa invasion. Although these data indicate that invasibility is inversely related to diversity, further study is needed to both reproduce these findings and define the specific mechanisms of the diversity effect.
doi: 10.1007/s00248-004-0179-3 pubmed: 15965723 link: https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s0...
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Microgravity effects on thylakoid, single leaf, and whole canopy photosynthesis of dwarf wheat

2005

G. W. Stutte,O. Monje,G. D. Goins,B. C. Tripathy

publication: Planta

Abstract

The concept of using higher plants to maintain a sustainable life support system for humans during long-duration space missions is dependent upon photosynthesis. The effects of extended exposure to microgravity on the development and functioning of photosynthesis at the leaf and stand levels were examined onboard the International Space Station (ISS). The PESTO (Photosynthesis Experiment Systems Testing and Operations) experiment was the first long-term replicated test to obtain direct measurements of canopy photosynthesis from space under well-controlled conditions. The PESTO experiment consisted of a series of 21-24 day growth cycles of Triticum aestivum L. cv. USU Apogee onboard ISS. Single leaf measurements showed no differences in photosynthetic activity at the moderate (up to 600 micromol m(-2) s(-1)) light levels, but reductions in whole chain electron transport, PSII, and PSI activities were measured under saturating light (>2,000 micromol m(-2) s(-1)) and CO(2) (4000 micromol mol(-1)) conditions in the microgravity-grown plants. Canopy level photosynthetic rates of plants developing in microgravity at approximately 280 micromol m(-2) s(-1) were not different from ground controls. The wheat canopy had apparently adapted to the microgravity environment since the CO(2) compensation (121 vs. 118 micromol mol(-1)) and PPF compensation (85 vs. 81 micromol m(-2) s(-1)) of the flight and ground treatments were similar. The reduction in whole chain electron transport (13%), PSII (13%), and PSI (16%) activities observed under saturating light conditions suggests that microgravity-induced responses at the canopy level may occur at higher PPF intensity.
doi: 10.1007/s00425-005-0066-2 pubmed: 16160842 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00425-005-0066-2
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Greenhouse tomato production

2005

M.M. Peet, G. Welles

publication: Tomatoes (BOOK)

Abstract

Greenhouse tomato production is discussed under the following topics: importance of the industry, costs of production, greenhouse structures, cropping schedules, transplant production, plant spacing and extra stems, cultivars, crop management (training systems, side-shooting and trimming, pollination, de-leafing, fruit pruning and development, topping plants at the end of the crop), substrates and substrate systems, nutrition and irrigation (nutrition, controlling growth, recirculating systems, irrigation), environmental control (relative humidity, temperature, carbon dioxide, light intensity, air pollutants, pest and disease management - insect and disease problems, biological control, biopesticides, conventional pesticides, cultural practices to avoid insect and disease problems, diseases in the root environment, root grafting), marketing, harvest, postharvest packing and storage, and potential production.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1079/9780851993966.0257
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Matching between food supply and human nutritional requirements in closed ecology experiment facilities (CEEF

2005

T. Masuda, Y. Tako, K. Nitta

publication: Eco-engineering

Abstract

A linear programming model has been constructed to develop a cultivation plan for habitation experiments using 2 crews in Closed Ecological Experiment Facilities (CEEF) under constraints such as limited cultivation area and various nutritional requirements. An optimization has been done using productivity data from 26 crops and 4 processed ingredients which were obtained from cultivation experiments in the CEEF. Results showed that the optimized area was 129.14 m2. This area was consistent with the practically utilizable area of the CEEF (86.09 % of 150 m2). Therefore feasibility of cultivation plan for habitation experiments was demonstrated because sufficient and not excessive nutrients could be provided for 2 crews from food production of the CEEF.
doi: 10.11450/seitaikogaku.17.61 link: http://jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JSTAGE/seitaikogaku/17.61?from=Google
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Advanced Life Support baseline values and assumptions document

2006

A.J. Hanford

publication: Technical Reports

Partial Abstract

The Advanced Life Support (ALS) Baseline Values and Assumptions Document (BVAD) researchers with a common set of initial values and assumptions called a baseline. This ...
link: https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=nasatr
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Bioactivity of volatile alcohols on the germination and growth of radish seedlings

2006

G.W. Stutte,I. Eraso,S. Anderson,R.D. Hickey

publication: HortScience

Abstract

A series of experiments were conducted to determine the sensitivity of radish to four light alcohols (ethanol, methanol, 2-propanol, and t-butanol) identified as atmospheric contaminants on manned spacecraft. Radish (Raphanus sativus L. 'Cherry Bomb' Hybrid II) seedlings were exposed for 5 days to concentrations of 0, 50, 100, 175, 250, and 500 ppm of each alcohol and the effect on seedling growth was used to establish preliminary threshold response values. Results show a general response-pattern for the four alcohol exposures at threshold responses of 10% (T10), 50% (T50) and 90% (T90) reduction in seedling length. There were differences in the response of seedlings to the four alcohols, with the T10 for t-butanol and ethanol (25 to 40 ppm) being 3 to 5x lower than for methanol or 2-propanol (110 to 120 ppm). Ethanol and t-butanol exhibited similar T 50 values (150 to 160 ppm). In contrast, T50 for methanol (285 ppm) and 2-propanol (260 ppm) were about 100 ppm higher than for ethanol or t-butanol. Chronic exposures to 400 ppm t-butanol, ethanol or 2-propanol were highly toxic to the plants. Radish was more tolerant of methanol, with T 90 of 465 ppm. Seeds did not germinate at the 500 ppm treatment of t-butanol, 2-propanol, or ethanol. There were significant differences in projected performance of plants in different environments, dependent upon the regulatory guidelines used. The use of exposure guidelines for humans is not applicable to plant systems.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.41.1.108 link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277752580_Bioactivity_of_Volatile_Alcohols_on_the_Germin...
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Investigating local impacts of heat-pulse sensors for media moisture content

2006

M.A. Ask, J.J. Prenger, D. Rouzan-Wheeldon, V. Rygalov, J. Norikane, H.G. Levine

publication: … and Space Research

Partial Abstract

Cultivating plants in space will require automated water provision systems to both maximize plant performance and minimize crew operations. We report here on studies evaluating small (1 cm diameter) heat-pulse sensors designed to measure media moisture content (TMAS sensors produced by Orbital Technologies Inc., Madison, WI). Calibrating the sensors' response to the moisture content of the media is a critical step towards their effective and accurate use. The sensors were designed to perform two functions: heat up ...
link: https://www.academia.edu/download/12822658/GravitationalBiology-v19n2-Todd-Boston-McMillen.pdf#page=136
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Monitoring and screening plant populations with combined thermal and chlorophyll fluorescence imaging

2006

Laury Chaerle,Ilkka Leinonen,Hamlyn G. Jones,Dominique Van Der Straeten

publication: Journal of experimental botany

Abstract

Thermal and chlorophyll fluorescence imaging are powerful tools for the study of spatial and temporal heterogeneity of leaf transpiration and photosynthetic performance. The relative advantages and disadvantages of these techniques are discussed. When combined, they can highlight pre-symptomatic responses not yet apparent in visual spectrum images and provide specific signatures for diagnosis of distinct diseases and abiotic stresses. In addition, their use for diagnosis and for selection for stomatal or photosynthetic mutants, these techniques can be applied for stress tolerance screening. For example, rapid screening for stomatal responses can be achieved by thermal imaging, while, combined with fluorescence imaging to study photosynthesis, they can potentially be used to derive leaf water use efficiency as a screening parameter. A particular advantage of imaging is that it allows continuous automated monitoring of dynamic spatial variation. Examples of applications include the study of growth and development of plant lines differing in stress resistance, yield, circadian clock-controlled responses, and the possible interactions between these parameters. In the future, such dual-imaging systems could be extended with complementary techniques such as hyperspectral and blue-green fluorescence imaging. This would result in an increased number of quantified parameters which will increase the power of stress diagnosis and the potential for screening of stress-tolerant genotypes.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/erl257 pubmed: 17189594 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/58/4/773/430442
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Multispectral fluorescence and reflectance imaging at the leaf level and its possible applications

2006

S. Lenk,L. Chaerle,E. E. Pfundel,G. Langsdorf,D. Hagenbeek,H. K. Lichtenthaler,D. Van Der Straeten,C. Buschmann

publication: Journal of experimental botany

Abstract

Images taken at different spectral bands are increasingly used for characterizing plants and their health status. In contrast to conventional point measurements, imaging detects the distribution and quantity of signals and thus improves the interpretation of fluorescence and reflectance signatures. In multispectral fluorescence and reflectance set-ups, images are separately acquired for the fluorescence in the blue, green, red, and far red, as well as for the reflectance in the green and in the near infrared regions. In addition, 'reference' colour images are taken with an RGB (red, green, blue) camera. Examples of imaging for the detection of photosynthetic activity, UV screening caused by UV-absorbing substances, fruit quality, leaf tissue structure, and disease symptoms are introduced. Subsequently, the different instrumentations used for multispectral fluorescence and reflectance imaging of leaves and fruits are discussed. Various types of irradiation and excitation light sources, detectors, and components for image acquisition and image processing are outlined. The acquired images (or image sequences) can be analysed either directly for each spectral range (wherein they were captured) or after calculating ratios of the different spectral bands. This analysis can be carried out for different regions of interest selected manually or (semi)-automatically. Fluorescence and reflectance imaging in different spectral bands represents a promising tool for non-destructive plant monitoring and a 'road' to a broad range of identification tasks.
doi: 10.1093/jxb/erl207 pubmed: 17118970 link: https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-abstract/58/4/807/426942
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Microgravity effects on leaf morphology, cell structure, carbon metabolism and mRNA expression of dwarf wheat

2006

G. W. Stutte,O. Monje,R. D. Hatfield,A. -L. Paul,R. J. Ferl,C. G. Simone

publication: Planta

Abstract

The use of higher plants as the basis for a biological life support system that regenerates the atmosphere, purifies water, and produces food has been proposed for long duration space missions. The objective of these experiments was to determine what effects microgravity (microg) had on chloroplast development, carbohydrate metabolism and gene expression in developing leaves of Triticum aestivum L. cv. USU Apogee. Gravity naive wheat plants were sampled from a series of seven 21-day experiments conducted during Increment IV of the International Space Station. These samples were fixed in either 3% glutaraldehyde or RNAlater or frozen at -25 degrees C for subsequent analysis. In addition, leaf samples were collected from 24- and 14-day-old plants during the mission that were returned to Earth for analysis. Plants grown under identical light, temperature, relative humidity, photoperiod, CO(2), and planting density were used as ground controls. At the morphological level, there was little difference in the development of cells of wheat under microg conditions. Leaves developed in mug have thinner cross-sectional area than the 1g grown plants. Ultrastructurally, the chloroplasts of microg grown plants were more ovoid than those developed at 1g, and the thylakoid membranes had a trend to greater packing density. No differences were observed in the starch, soluble sugar, or lignin content of the leaves grown in microg or 1g conditions. Furthermore, no differences in gene expression were detected leaf samples collected at microg from 24-day-old leaves, suggesting that the spaceflight environment had minimal impact on wheat metabolism.
doi: 10.1007/s00425-006-0290-4 pubmed: 16708225 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00425-006-0290-4
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Microgravity effects on leaf morphology, cell structure, carbon metabolism, and mRNA expression of dwarf wheat

2006

G. W. Stutte,O. Monje,R. D. Hatfield,A. -L. Paul,R. J. Ferl,C. G. Simone

publication: Planta

Abstract

The use of higher plants as the basis for a biological life support system that regenerates the atmosphere, purifies water, and produces food has been proposed for long duration space missions. The objective of these experiments was to determine what effects microgravity (microg) had on chloroplast development, carbohydrate metabolism and gene expression in developing leaves of Triticum aestivum L. cv. USU Apogee. Gravity naive wheat plants were sampled from a series of seven 21-day experiments conducted during Increment IV of the International Space Station. These samples were fixed in either 3% glutaraldehyde or RNAlater or frozen at -25 degrees C for subsequent analysis. In addition, leaf samples were collected from 24- and 14-day-old plants during the mission that were returned to Earth for analysis. Plants grown under identical light, temperature, relative humidity, photoperiod, CO(2), and planting density were used as ground controls. At the morphological level, there was little difference in the development of cells of wheat under microg conditions. Leaves developed in mug have thinner cross-sectional area than the 1g grown plants. Ultrastructurally, the chloroplasts of microg grown plants were more ovoid than those developed at 1g, and the thylakoid membranes had a trend to greater packing density. No differences were observed in the starch, soluble sugar, or lignin content of the leaves grown in microg or 1g conditions. Furthermore, no differences in gene expression were detected leaf samples collected at microg from 24-day-old leaves, suggesting that the spaceflight environment had minimal impact on wheat metabolism.
doi: 10.1007/s00425-006-0290-4 pubmed: 16708225 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00425-006-0290-4
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Water and energy transport for crops under different lighting conditions

2006

James F. Russell,Gioia D. Massa,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

When high-intensity discharge (HID) electric lamps are used for plant growth, system inefficiencies occur due to an inability to effectively target light to all photosynthetic tissues of a growing crop stand, especially when it is closed with respect to light penetration. To maintain acceptable crop productivity, light levels typically are increased thus increasing heat loads on the plants. Evapotranspiration (ET) or transparent thermal barrier systems are subsequently required to maintain thermal balance, and power-intensive condensers are used to recover the evaporated water for reuse in closed systems. By accurately targeting light to plant tissues, electric lamps can be operated at lower power settings and produce less heat. With lower power and heat loads, less energy is used for plant growth, and possibly less water is evapotranspired. By combining these effects, a considerable energy savings is possible. To assess potential energy savings, the authors examined the costs of water and energy transport of cowpea and soybean under four different lighting conditions: overhead metal halide lamps at low light (350 umol/m2/s), overhead high pressure sodium lamps at high light (870 umol/m2/s), an overhead close-canopy light-emitting diode (LED)-based system at low light (300 umol/m2/s), and an intracanopy LED-based system at low light (300 umol/m2/s). The authors used data from published and ongoing studies in the system analysis. When comparing the different lighting conditions, different amounts of total biomass were produced but similar ET rates were found, so lighting condition was not found to impact ET. Overall, intracanopy, LED-based lighting provided the lowest energy costs.
doi: 10.4271/2006-01-2028 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2006-01-2028/
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Strawberry cultivar analysis: Temperature and pollination Studies

2006

Gioia D. Massa,Mercedes E. Mick,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Strawberry is a life-support-system candidate crop species that is long-lived, asexually propagated, and can bear large quantities of fruit high in sugar and antioxidant content. Strawberries of four day-neutral cultivars (‘Tribute’, ‘Tristar’, ‘Seascape’, and ‘Fern’) and one ever-bearing cultivar (‘Cavendish’) were grown under greenhouse conditions or varying temperature regimes in three growth chambers. Flowers in growth chambers were hand pollinated three-times weekly with stored pollen, and ripe berries were harvested, counted, weighed, and tested organolepticly. In the greenhouse, two different pollination treatments were compared, while another group of plants was left unpollinated, receiving only occasional mechanical stimulation from normal greenhouse airflow, berry harvest, and plant maintenance. A second group was pollinated with a vibrating wand, and a third group was hand pollinated with stored pollen. The time required for each method was compared along with berry productivity.
doi: 10.4271/2006-01-2030 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2006-01-2030/
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Plant facilities for inflatable habitats

2006

C. Lobascio,M. Lamantea,M. A. Perino,L. Bertaggia,V. Bornisacci,F. Piccolo

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The forthcoming planetary missions will require a large amount of resources, among which food is of paramount importance. The capability to implement a meaningful food production must be achieved not only controlling the complete crop production chain but also providing the large volumes required for the scope. Alcatel Alenia Space-Italia (AAS-I) with a team of partners are working in both directions, via design and development of plant growth facilities and of inflatable structures providing large volumes to host the cultivation system. This paper presents the status currently reached, the lessons learnt and future works.
doi: 10.4271/2006-01-2214 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2006-01-2214/
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Integration of heat capacity and electrical conductivity sensors for root module water and nutrient assessment

2006

Robert Heinse,Kelly S. Lewis,Scott B. Jones,Gerard Kluitenberg,Richard S. Austin,Peter J. Shouse,Gail E. Bingham

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Management of water content and nutrient status during space flight is a critical element for successful plant production systems. Our objectives were to determine if dual-probe heat-pulse (DPHP) sensors could improve water content determination accuracy over single-probe heat-pulse (SPHP) sensors, and to test a design using coupled heat-pulse and direct-current electrical conductivity sensors, paired as a 4-electrode array. The DPHP predicted water content correlated well with independently measured water contents based on a physically-derived one-point calibration model. SPHP water content prediction was comparable to the dual-probe sensors when using an empirical relationship. Pooled regression analysis showed that water content for both sensors was accurate with a root-mean square error of 0.02 cm3 cm−3. Electrical conductivity was measured in both saturated flow-through and static unsaturated measurements. Model predictions of solution electrical conductivity as a function of water contents were well correlated for water contents above 0.2 cm3 cm−3. Combining the dual-needle heat-pulse probe water content determination with electrical conductivity measurements provides improved root-zone environment assessment and management capabilities.
doi: 10.4271/2006-01-2211 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2006-01-2211/
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Carbon dioxide separation and recovery from the closed animal breeding and habitation module of the CEEF during closed habitation experiments

2006

Takashi Tani,Susumu Nozoe,Shouichi Tsuga,Yasuhiro Tako

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

In the Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF), an artificial ecosystem including crops, Shiba goats, and human inhabitants is to be constructed in order to conduct long-term habitation experiments. For carbon circulation in this artificial ecosystem, CO2 needs to be recovered from the air of animal breeding and habitation rooms using a CO2 separator and to be injected into growth chambers for consumption in crop photosynthesis. Moreover, daily crop yield from the growth chambers needs to be stabilized to drive carbon circulation in the artificial ecosystemwithout huge buffers. Because crops are cultivated in a staggered manner, controlling atmospheric CO2 concentration in the growth chambers at a constant level during light periods throughout crop cultivation is necessary for stabilizing daily crop yield. Our results indicated that atmospheric CO2 concentration in the growth chambers could be controlled at a constant level during light periods when CO2 recovered from the animal breeding and habitation rooms using a CO2 separatorwas injected into the growth chambers. Therefore, we concluded that CO2 separation capacity was enough for driving carbon circulation in the artificial ecosystem constructed in the CEEF.
doi: 10.4271/2006-01-2076 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2006-01-2076/
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Physicochemical properties and consumer acceptance of hydroponic carrots (Daucus carota) in an extended screening process

2006

P. N. Gichuhi,C. S. Hathorn,D. Gladney,D. Mortley,S. Moultrie,E. Bromfield,A. C. Bovell-Benjamin

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

This study compared the physicochemical properties and consumer acceptance of seven nutrient film technique (NFT) and eight microporous tube membrane nutrient delivery system (MTMS) grown hydroponic carrots. NFT-grown carrots had moisture contents range from 86.3–92.1% while the MTMS-grown carrots a range of 82.0–92.0%. β-carotene contents for the NFT-carrots ranged between 2,030–9,900 μg/100 g and for the MTMS-carrots between 2,977–10,488 μg/100 g. Royal Chantenay-NFT- and Mignon-MTMS-grown were the lightest in color, whereas, Mignon-NFT, and Little Finger-MTMS were the darkest. Paramex MTMS-grown was the most acceptable cultivar to the consumers. Paramex, Kinko and Mignon have good potential to be considered for further screening.
doi: 10.4271/2006-01-2068 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2006-01-2068/
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Growing pioneer plants for a lunar base

2006

N.O. Kozyrovska,T.L. Lutvynenko,O.S. Korniichuk,M.V. Kovalchuk,T.M. Voznyuk,O. Kononuchenko,I. Zaetz,I.S. Rogutskyy,O.V. Mytrokhyn,S.P. Mashkovska,B.H. Foing,V.A. Kordyum

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

A precursory scenario of cultivating the first plants in a lunar greenhouse was elaborated in frames of a conceptual study to grow plants for a permanently manned lunar base. A prototype plant growth system represents an ornamental plant Tagetes patula L. for growing in a lunar rock anorthosite as a substrate. Microbial community anticipated to be in use to support a growth and development of the plant in a substrate of low bioavailability and provide an acceptable growth and blossoming of T. patula under growth limiting conditions.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2005.03.005 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311770500267X
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Sensitivity screening of radish seedlings to spacecraft VOC’s

2006

I. Eraso, G.W. Stutte, O. Monje, S. Anderson, R.D. Hickey

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Atmospheric contaminants in spacecraft can affect the performance of plant-based life support systems for long duration space missions. NASA has established Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentration (SMAC) guidelines for crew exposure to air pollutants commonly found in spacecrafts and the International Space Station. However, NASA has not established similar guidelines for plant systems. An automated volatile organic compound (VOC) system was developed to allow bioactivity screening of compounds on plant growth ...
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20063135771
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Yields of salad crops grown under potential Lunar and Mars habitat environments: Effect of temperature and lighting

2006

Jeffrey T. Richards,Sharon L. Edney,Neil C. Yorio,Gary W. Stutte,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

Growth temperatures and lighting intensity are key factors that directly impact the design, engineering, and horticultural practices of sustainable life-support systems for future long-term space missions. The effects of exposure of lettuce (cv. Flandria), radish (cv. Cherry Bomb II). and green onion (cv. Kinka) plants to controlled environment temperatures (constant day/night temperature of 22, 25, or 28 °C) and lighting intensities (8.6, 17.2, or 25.8 mol m^-2 d^-1 photosynthetic photon flux [PPF]) at elevated C02 (1200 pmol mol^-1) was investigated to ascertain overall yield responses. Following 35 days growth, the yields of lettuce indicated that increasing the growing temperature from 22 to 28°C slightly increased the edible fresh mass of individual plants. However, even though lettuce plants grown under high PPF had the highest fresh mass, the resultant increase in the incidence and severity of tipburn reduced the overall quality of the lettuce head. As a result of the tipburn, the quantum efficiency (g FM mol^-1 PPF) of lettuce plants grown at the highest PPF was also significantly reduced. In contrast, radish was more sensitive to higher growth temperatures, with reductions in fresh mass of the storage root as growth temperature increased, especially at higher daily PPFs. As a result, high PPF and high growing temperatures translated into lower storage-root quality, as surface cracking and hollow heart of storage roots was severe for radish. Quantum efficiencies were also lowest at the higher growth temperature. Yields of onion were significantly enhanced by increasing growth temperature and, more importantly, light intensity. Unlike lettuce and radish, there were no indications of any physical deformities of onion at any PPF/temperature treatment.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44657663
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Carbon flow in an artificial ecosystem comprised of crew, goats and crops for three 1-week confined habitation experiments using CEEF

2006

Yasuhiro Tako,Shouichi Tsuga,Takashi Tani,Ryuji Arai,Osamu Komatsubara,Masanori Shinohara

publication: SAE Transactions

Abstract

Three 1-week experiments were conducted from September to October of 2005 in which two human subjects called as eco-nauts were enclosed and worked in an airtight facility called Closed Ecosystem Experiment Facilities (CEEF). The test involved connecting a Plant Module (PM) with 23 crops, including rice, soybean, peanut, and sugar beet, to an Animal & Habitation Module (AHM), which included the eco-nauts and two Shiba goats. Although only 34% (by weight) of the food consumed by the eco-nauts was produced by crops in the PM in the first experiment, it was 81% in the second and third experiments. As for feed for the goats, although all was Timothy hay was supplied from outside in the first experiment, all of the feed (rice straw, soybean leaf and peanut shell) was produced in the PM in the second and third experiments. In all these experiments, the crops produced more oxygen than the amount consumed by respiration of human and animals. The oxygen build-up in the atmosphere of the PM from crop photosynthesis was separated and supplied to the atmosphere of the AHM. Carbon dioxide build-up in the AHM atmosphere from respiration of eco-nauts and Shiba goats was separated and supplied back to atmosphere of the PM. Carbon in waste except for a part of that in human feces was withdrawn and not recycled for these experiments. Therefore, extra carbon dioxide was added to the PM atmosphere in order to compensate for the demand from photosynthesis of the crops. Amounts of carbon in edible and inedible parts of harvested crop biomass and amount of carbon taken by the eco-nauts and Shiba goats were also estimated.
link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44657672
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Exposure of Arabidopsis thaliana to hypobaric environments: Implications for low-pressure bioregenerative life support systems for human exploration missions and terraforming on Mars

2006

Jeffrey T. Richards,Kenneth A. Corey,Anna-Lisa Paul,Robert J. Ferl,Raymond M. Wheeler,Andrew C. Schuerger

publication: Astrobiology

Abstract

Understanding how hypobaria can affect net photosynthetic (P (net)) and net evapotranspiration rates of plants is important for the Mars Exploration Program because low-pressured environments may be used to reduce the equivalent system mass of near-term plant biology experiments on landers or future bioregenerative advanced life support systems. Furthermore, introductions of plants to the surface of a partially terraformed Mars will be constrained by the limits of sustainable growth and reproduction of plants to hypobaric conditions. To explore the effects of hypobaria on plant physiology, a low-pressure growth chamber (LPGC) was constructed that maintained hypobaric environments capable of supporting short-term plant physiological studies. Experiments were conducted on Arabidopsis thaliana maintained in the LPGC with total atmospheric pressures set at 101 (Earth sea-level control), 75, 50, 25 or 10 kPa. Plants were grown in a separate incubator at 101 kPa for 6 weeks, transferred to the LPGC, and acclimated to low-pressure atmospheres for either 1 or 16 h. After 1 or 16 h of acclimation, CO(2) levels were allowed to drawdown from 0.1 kPa to CO(2) compensation points to assess P (net) rates under different hypobaric conditions. Results showed that P (net) increased as the pressures decreased from 101 to 10 kPa when CO(2) partial pressure (pp) values were below 0.04 kPa (i.e., when ppCO2 was considered limiting). In contrast, when ppCO(2) was in the nonlimiting range from 0.10 to 0.07 kPa, the P (net) rates were insensitive to decreasing pressures. Thus, if CO(2 )concentrations can be kept elevated in hypobaric plant growth modules or on the surface of a partially terraformed Mars, P (net) rates may be relatively unaffected by hypobaria. Results support the conclusions that (i) hypobaric plant growth modules might be operated around 10 kPa without undue inhibition of photosynthesis and (ii) terraforming efforts on Mars might require a surface pressure of at least 10 kPa (100 mb) for normal growth of deployed plant species.
doi: 10.1089/ast.2006.6.851 pubmed: 17155885 link: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ast.2006.6.851
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The biology of low atmospheric pressure--Implications for exploration mission design and advanced life support

2006

A.-L. Paul, R.J. Ferl

publication: Gravitational and Space Biology

Abstract

Atmospheric pressure is a variable that has been often manipulated in the trade space surrounding the design and engineering of space exploration vehicles and extraterrestrial habitats. Low pressures were used to reduce structural engineering and launch mass throughout the early human space program; moreover, low pressures will certainly be considered in future concepts for the same reasons. Fundamental understanding of the biological impact of low pressure environments is therefore critical for the successful consideration of this variable, being particularly important when considering future, potentially complex bioregenerative life support systems. However, low pressure biological effects are also critical considerations that should be incorporated into near term vehicle designs, designs that may set hardware and operations criteria that would carry over into far-term future designs.
In order to begin to define the fundamental biological responses to low atmospheric pressure, we have identified the molecular genetic responses central to the initial exposure of the model plant Arabidopsis to hypobaric stress. Less than half of the genes induced by hypobaria are induced by hypoxia, establishing that response to hypobaria is a unique biological response and is more complex than just an adaptation to low partial pressures of oxygen. In addition, the suites of genes induced by hypobaria confirm that water movement is a paramount issue in plants. Current experiments examine gene expression profiles in response to a wide variety of pressures, ranging from slight to extreme hypobaria. Results indicate that even small changes in atmospheric pressure have attendant biological consequences deserving consideration during the concept and design of vehicles and habitats. Moreover, the range of pressures to which plants can adapt suggests that very low pressures can be considered for plant-specific habitats.
The choices of atmospheric pressure within spaceflight and extraterrestrial habitats are not merely engineering considerations but are biological considerations of the highest order, and modern molecular tools can be employed to increase understanding of the biological consequences of pressure engineering decisions.

link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anna-Lisa-Paul/publication/228351730_The_biology_of_low_atmo...
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A cylindrical salad growth facility with a light-emitting diodes unit as a component for biological life support system for space crews

2006

A.N. Erokhin,Yu.A. Berkovich,S.O. Smolianina,N.M. Krivobok,A.N. Agureev,S.K. Kalandarov

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

During space fights, animals and astronauts have to live and act under unusual environmental conditions characterised by reduced gravity. Due to interactions with several physiological systems, the immune system is sensitive to endogenous and exogenous influences. The present study provides the first data of parameters of the defence system, namely differential haemogram and spontaneous cell proliferation activity of nephritic tissue as well as phagocytosis activity of isolated nephritic phagocytes, in teleost fish after 9 days (STS-89) and 16 days (STS-90) of space flight. The artificial aquatic ecosystem C.E.B.A.S. (Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System) was the habitat of swordtail fish (Xiphophorus helleri) during space flights and for ground controls. No statistically significant differences were observed between fish after space flights and ground controls either after 9 or 16 days. Additionally, all values of the space flight experiments remained within the physiological normal area. However, in comparison to the values of fish that were kept in aquaria as ground controls, the environmental conditions of some C.E.B.A.S. ground experiments showed a decrease of monocytes and lymphocytes as well as inhibition of the activity of phagocytosis and spontaneous cell proliferation. Swordtails from C.E.B.A.S. ground experiments showed typical symptoms of a stress reaction, namely a decrease of monocytes and lymphocytes and an inhibition of phagocytosis activity. These results indicate that short-term space flights of 9 and 16 days have no effects on the immune system of the swordtails, whereas specific environmental conditions such as those found in the C.E.B.A.S. module during the experiments have the potential to influence defence parameters.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2006.04.012 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117706002419
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Greenhouses in extreme environments: The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse design and operation overview

2006

Richard Giroux,Alain Berinstain,Stephen Braham,Thomas Graham,Matthew Bamsey,Keegan Boyd,Matthew Silver,Alexis Lussier-Desbiens,Pascal Lee,Marc Boucher,Keith Cowing,Michael Dixon

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Since its deployment on Devon Island, Canadian High Arctic, in 2002, the Haughton Mars Project’s Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse (ACMG) has supported extreme environment related scientific and operation research that is relevant to Mars analogue studies – each at a specific level of fidelity and complexity. The Greenhouse serves as an initial experimental test-bed supporting field research, from which lessons may be learned to support the design and implementation of future field facilities, and enabling higher fidelity demonstrations. This paper provides an overall description of the ACMG, describes the different subsystems, explains its operational modes, details some results over the three years of operation and discusses future development plans.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2006.07.010 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117706004698
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The role of volatile of metabolites in microbial communities of the LSS higher plant link

2006

L.S. Tirranen,I.I. Gitelson

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The paper addresses the possibility of controlling the microbial community composition through metabolites produced by microbes. The comparative analysis of experimental data has shown that volatile metabolites make a much greater contribution to the microbial interactions than nonvolatile ones. It has been found that interaction of microorganisms via the volatiles they release occurs frequently and is typical of a number of microorganisms. Volatile metabolites released by microorganisms produce an inhibitory, sometimes bactericidal, effect on the vital functions of bacteria. The stimulating action occurs 6–8 times less frequently. The range of action on the growth of the test cultures and the range of sensitivity to the effect of volatile metabolites of the study microbes have been found to be individual. Comparative cluster analysis of the ranges of action of 100 study cultures has shown that in the investigated set of microorganism species interaction was performed via a set of volatiles of an inhibiting action (82) and of a stimulating action (52). It has been found that release of volatile metabolites by the studied microorganisms depends upon the culture age, concentrations of components of the nutrient medium, and volatile by-products released by other microorganisms. This production can be increased or decreased by the action of volatile metabolites of other microbes. This is related to strain features and culture age. The prospects of using these regulating metabolites depend on the “range”, specificity and safety for other members of the microbial community in insufficient concentrations. Volatiles produced by plants and microorganisms as well as by other components of the system – humans and processing equipment installed inside the closed ecosystem – could influence the formation not only of the microbial community but also of the gas composition of the system’s atmosphere, through which they could affect the state of the plants. Specially performed experiments have shown that volatile metabolites of microorganisms can accumulate in their habitat, dissolve in the atmospheric water, and maintain their biological activity for days. It has been determined that volatile metabolites of some microorganisms are toxic for plants. Growth of seedling roots is inhibited more than growth of stems.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2006.02.038 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117706001153
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Effects of artificial lighting on the detection of plant stress with spectral reflectance remote sensing in bioregenerative life support systems Intl

2006

A.C. Schuerger, J.T. Richards

publication: International Journal of Astrobiology

Abstract

Plant-based life support systems that utilize bioregenerative technologies have been proposed for long-term human missions to both the Moon and Mars. Bioregenerative life support systems will utilize higher plants to regenerate oxygen, water, and edible biomass for crews, and are likely to significantly lower the ‘equivalent system mass’ of crewed vehicles. As part of an ongoing effort to begin the development of an automatic remote sensing system to monitor plant health in bioregenerative life support modules, we tested the efficacy of seven artificial illumination sources on the remote detection of plant stresses. A cohort of pepper plants (Capsicum annuum L.) were grown 42 days at 25 °C, 70% relative humidity, and 300 μmol m−2 s−1 of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR; from 400 to 700 nm). Plants were grown under nutritional stresses induced by irrigating subsets of the plants with 100, 50, 25, or 10% of a standard nutrient solution. Reflectance spectra of the healthy and stressed plants were collected under seven artificial lamps including two tungsten halogen lamps, plus high pressure sodium, metal halide, fluorescent, microwave, and red/blue light emitting diode (LED) sources. Results indicated that several common algorithms used to estimate biomass and leaf chlorophyll content were effective in predicting plant stress under all seven illumination sources. However, the two types of tungsten halogen lamps and the microwave illumination source yielded linear models with the highest residuals and thus the highest predictive capabilities of all lamps tested. The illumination sources with the least predictive capabilities were the red/blue LEDs and fluorescent lamps. Although the red/blue LEDs yielded the lowest residuals for linear models derived from the remote sensing data, the LED arrays used in these experiments were optimized for plant productivity and not the collection of remote sensing data. Thus, we propose that if adjusted to optimize the collection of remote sensing information from plants, LEDs remain the best candidates for illumination sources for monitoring plant stresses in bioregenerative life support systems.
doi: 10.1017/S1473550406003053 link: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/effects-of-...
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Microbial ecology of the closed artificial ecosystem MELiSSA (Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative): Reinventing and compartmentalizing the Earth's food and oxygen regeneration system for long-haul space exploration missions

2006

Larissa Hendrickx,Heleen De Wever,Veronik Hermans,Felice Mastroleo,Nicolas Morin,Annick Wilmotte,Paul Janssen,Max Mergeay

publication: Research in microbiology

Abstract

MELiSSA is a bioregenerative life support system designed by the European Space Agency (ESA) for the complete recycling of gas, liquid and solid wastes during long distance space exploration. The system uses the combined activity of different living organisms: microbial cultures in bioreactors, a plant compartment and a human crew. In this minireview, the development of a short-cut ecological system for the biotransformation of organic waste is discussed from a microorganism's perspective. The artificial ecological model--still in full development--that is inspired by Earth's own geomicrobiological ecosystem serves as an ideal study object on microbial ecology and will become an indispensable travel companion in manned space exploration.
doi: 10.1016/j.resmic.2005.06.014 pubmed: 16431089 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0923250805002652
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Axenic plant culture system for optimal growth in long-term studies

2006

Amelia Henry,William Doucette,Jeanette Norton,Scott Jones,Julie Chard,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Journal of environmental quality

Abstract

The symbiotic co-evolution of plants and microbes leads to difficulties in understanding which of the two components is responsible for a given environmental response. Plant-microbe studies greatly benefit from the ability to grow plants in axenic (sterile) culture. Several studies have used axenic plant culture systems, but experimental procedures are often poorly documented, the plant growth environment is not optimal, and axenic conditions are not rigorously verified. We developed a unique axenic system using inert components that promotes plant health and can be kept sterile for at least 70 d. Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum cv. CDII) plants were grown in sand within flow-through glass columns that were positively pressured with filtered air. Plant health was optimized by regulating temperature, light level, CO2 concentration, humidity, and nutrients. The design incorporates several novel aspects, such as pretreatment of the sand with Fe, graduated sand layers to optimize the air-water balance of the root zone, and modification of a laminar flow hood to serve as a plant growth chamber. Adaptations of several sterile techniques were necessary for maintenance of axenic conditions. Axenic conditions were verified by plating and staining leachates as well as a rhizoplane stain. This system was designed to study nutrient and water stress effects on root exudates, but is useful for assessing a broad range of plant-microbe-environment interactions. Based on total organic C analysis, 74% of exudates was recovered in the leachate, 6% was recovered in the bulk sand, and 17% was recovered in the rhizosphere sand. Carbon in the leachate after 70 d reached 255 microg d(-1). Fumaric, malic, malonic, oxalic, and succinic acids were measured as components of the root exudates.
doi: 10.2134/jeq2005.0127 pubmed: 16510704 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/jeq2005.0127
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Process and product: Recirculating hydroponics and bioactive compounds in a controlled environment

2006

Gary W. Stutte

publication: HortScience

Abstract

NASA has investigated the use of recirculating nutrient film technique (NFT) systems to grow higher plants on long-duration space missions for many years and has demonstrated the feasibility of using recirculating systems on numerous crop species. A long duration (418-day) experiment was conducted at Kennedy Space Center, Fla., to evaluate the feasibility of using recirculating hydroponics for the continuous production of Solanum tuberosum L. 'Norland'. The productivity of four sequential batch plantings was compared to staggered harvest and plantings. The accumulation of bioactive organic compounds in the nutrient solution resulted in reduced plant height, induced early tuber formation, and increased harvest index of the crops in both production systems. The changes in crop development were managed by increasing planting density and reducing cycle time to sustain production efficiency.
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gary-Stutte/publication/277740416_Process_and_Product_Recirc...
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Potatoes for human exploration of space: Observations from NASA-sponsored controlled environment studies

2006

Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Potato Research

Abstract

Future space exploration by humans will require reliable supplies of food, oxygen and clean water to sustain the expeditions. Potato is one of several crops being studied for such a “life support” role. Tests sponsored by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) confirmed the well-known short day tendencies for tuberisation, but also revealed that some cvs. (e.g., Norland, Denali and Russet Burbank) could tuberise well under continuous high light. Horticultural tests showed that plants grew well and tuberised readily using a nutrient film technique (NFT). CO2 enrichment studies with potato showed typical C3 responses in photosynthesis and yield, with maximum rates occurring near 1000 μmol mol−1. The highest tuber yields from these controlled environment studies reached 19.7 kg FM m−2 or equivalent to nearly 200 t ha−1. This equated to a productivity of 38 g m−2 DM m−2 day−1. Stand evapotranspiration (ET) rates ranged from 3.4 to 5.2 l m−2 day−1 throughout growth, while maximum ET rates for canopies could approach 10 l m−2 day−1. Harvest indices (tuber DM/total DM) typically ranged from 0.7 to 0.8, indicating that waste (inedible) biomass from potato would be less than that from many other crops. An experiment was conducted in 1995 on NASA’s Space Shuttle using excised potato leaves to study tuber formation at axillary buds during spaceflight. The results showed that tubers formed equally well in space as in the ground controls, indicating that reduced gravity should not be an impediment to tuberisation.
doi: 10.1007/s11540-006-9003-4 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11540-006-9003-4
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Heat and mass transfer of a low pressure Mars greenhouse: Simulation and experimental analyses

2006

I. Hublitz

publication: Thesis

Abstract

Biological life support systems based on plant growth offer the advantage of producing fresh food for the crew during a long surface stay on Mars. Greenhouses on Mars are also used for air and water regeneration and waste treatment. A major challenge in developing a Mars greenhouse is its interaction with the thin and cold Mars environment. Operating a Mars greenhouse at low interior pressure reduces the pressure differential across the structure and therefore saves structural mass as well as reduces leakage.
Experiments were conducted to analyze the heating requirements as well as the temperature and humidity distribution within a small-scale greenhouse that was placed in a chamber simulating the temperatures, pressure and light conditions on Mars. Lettuce plants were successfully grown inside of the Mars greenhouse for up to seven days. The greenhouse atmosphere parameters, including temperature, total pressure, oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration were controlled tightly; radiation level, relative humidity and plant evapo-transpiration rates were measured.
A vertical stratification of temperature and humidity across the greenhouse atmosphere was observed. Condensation formed on the inside of the greenhouse when the shell temperature dropped below the dew-point. During the night cycles frost built up on the greenhouse base plate and the lower part of the shell. Heat loss increased significantly during the night cycle. Due to the placement of the heating system and the fan blowing warm air directly on the upper greenhouse shell, condensation above the plants was avoided and therefore the photosynthetically active radiation at plant level was kept constant. Plant growth was not affected by the temperature stratification due to the tight temperature control of the warmer upper section of the greenhouse, where the lettuce plants were placed.
A steady state and a transient heat transfer model of the low pressure greenhouse were developed for the day and the night cycle. Furthermore, low pressure psychrometric relations for closed systems and modified atmospheres were generated to calculate the properties of the moist air in order to predict condensate formation. The results of this study improve the design of the environmental control system leading to an optimization of plant growth conditions.

link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/7e640835eb7d7933c566dc804a303609/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=...
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Nutrient solution and solution pH influences on onion growth and mineral content

2006

Chad D. Kane,Richard L. Jasoni,Ellen P. Peffley,Leslie D. Thompson,Cary J. Green,Paul Pare,David Tissue

publication: Journal of Plant Nutrition

Abstract

The effects of hydroponic nutrient solution composition and pH on growth and mineral content of green onions was evaluated. Three onion varieties [Allium cepa L. (‘Deep Purple’ and ‘Purplette’) and A. fistulosum L. (‘Kinka’)] were propagated in three nutrient solutions (Peter's Hydro-Sol, modified Hoagland's, and half-strength modified Hoagland's) at two pH levels (5.8 and 6.5) in a three-by-two factorial design applied in a randomized block with three replications. Seeds were germinated in Cropking's Oasis Horticubes under greenhouse conditions and irrigated with tap water. Once the seedlings reached the flag stage, the plants were placed into hydroponic units within the greenhouse and grown under ambient conditions. Plants were harvested 30 d after transplanting to the hydroponic units. The results indicated nutrient solution, pH, and variety significantly affected several plant physiological variables. Total biomass and edible biomass production was as high for plants grown in half-strength Hoagland's nutrient solution as for those grown in the other solutions. Total biomass was greatest for plants grown at a solution pH of 6.5. ‘Deep Purple’ produced a significantly greater overall total biomass than did ‘Purplette’ or ‘Kinka.’ Hydro-Sol tended to produce onions with highest mineral content. Due to the fact that biomass production was as great in the half-strength Hoagland's as in the more concentrated solution and that a pH of 6.5 produced greater total biomass, the half-strength Hoagland's solution at pH 6.5 was the preferred nutrient solution evaluated in this research. Selection of an appropriate nutrient solution must consider both edible biomass production and mineral content. In the research reported here, the solution that produced the greatest biomass did not produce plant material with the highest mineral content.
doi: 10.1080/01904160500477028 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01904160500477028
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Anaerobic digestion of space mission wastes

2006

D.P. Chynoweth,J.M. Owens,A.A. Teixeira,P. Pullammanappallil,S.S. Luniya

publication: Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research

Abstract

The technical feasibility of applying leachbed high-solids anaerobic digestion for reduction and stabilization of the organic fraction of solid wastes generated during space missions was investigated. This process has the advantages of not requiring oxygen or high temperature and pressure while producing methane, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and compost as valuable products. Anaerobic biochemical methane potential assays run on several waste feedstocks expected during space missions resulted in ultimate methane yields ranging from 0.23 to 0.30 L g-1 VS added. Modifications for operation of a leachbed anaerobic digestion process in space environments were incorporated into a new design, which included; (1) flooded operation to force leachate through densified feedstock beds; and (2) separation of biogas from leachate in a gas collection reservoir. This mode of operation resulted in stable performance with 85% conversion of a typical space solid waste blend, and a methane yield of 0.3 Lg per g VS added after a retention time of 15 days. These results were reproduced in a full-scale prototype system. A detailed analysis of this process was conducted to design the system sized for a space mission with a six-person crew. Anaerobic digestion compared favorably with other technologies for solid waste stabilization.
doi: 10.2166/wst.2006.248 pubmed: 16784202 link: https://iwaponline.com/wst/article-abstract/53/8/177/11993
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Plant Cultivation in Space: next steps towards the svet-3 space greenhouse project and current advances.

2006

Assoc. Prof. T. N. Ivanova,P. T. Kostov,S. M. Sapunova,I. I. Ilieva,S. K. Neychev

publication: 57th International Astronautical Congress

Abstract

The next steps to the development of an advanced SVET-3 Space Greenhouse with wider parameter monitoring and adaptive control of the shoot and root environment so as to provide most favorable conditions for plant growth and development are presented. A new system for precise plant shoot zone environment monitoring was added to the existing SVET-2 SG equipment (using the ME-4610 data acquisition system). Some main sensors sub-systems for measurement of light intensity, air humidity, temperature, air pressure and air flow velocity were developed and described. Laboratory verification tests of these systems in two experiments with different lettuce plants variety and chamber volume were carried out. Ground research was performed to study the processes going in the root zone medium in earth and model microgravity conditions and on this basis to make some optimizations for providing adequate root environment in space. Biotechnical experiments were carried out to investigate the plant response to artificial hypo-oxygen and waterlogging “stresses” in substrate Balkanine. The results obtained showed that even a small rise of moisture in the substrate when saturation has occurred in the bottom layers can lead to oxygen deficiency in the plant root area and to photosynthesis reduction as a result.
doi: 10.2514/6.IAC-06-A1.5.09 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.IAC-06-A1.5.09
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Hypobaric conditions affect gas exchange, ethylene evolution, and growth of lettuce for advanced life support systems (ALS)

2006

C. He, F.R. Davies, R.E. Lacey

publication: Habitation

Abstract

There are important engineering and crop production advantages in growing plants under hypobaric (reduced atmospheric pressure) conditions for extraterrestrial base or spaceflight environments. Advantages include reduced pay load, greater safety because of lower pressure gradients, and improved plant growth. Elevated levels of the plant hormone, ethylene, can occur in enclosed crop production systems and in spaceflight environments, leading to adverse plant growth and sterility. Objectives of this research were to characterize the influence of hypobaria on growth and ethylene evolution of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Buttercrunch). Growth was comparable in lettuce grown under 50 and 101 kPa (ambient) total gas pressures in a series of short-term experiments lasting up to 6 days. However, tip burn occurred under ambient pressure, but not low pressure. Tip burn also increased under high light (600 compared to 300 μmol m−2s−1) and high pCO2 (600 compared to 100 Pa). Under ambient pressure, there were higher CO2 assimilation rates and considerably greater dark respiration rates (higher night consumption of metabolites) compared to low pressure. This could lead to greater growth (biomass production) of plants grown in low pressure over longer crop production cycles. Ethylene evolution was lower under low than ambient pressure.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/habit/2006/00000011/00000001/art00005
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Biological life support systems for a Mars mission planetary base: Problems and prospects

2007

A.A. Tikhomirov,S.A. Ushakova,N.P. Kovaleva,B. Lamaze,M. Lobo,Ch. Lasseur

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The study develops approaches to designing biological life support systems for the Mars mission – for the flight conditions and for a planetary base – using experience of the Institute of Biophysics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBP SB RAS) with the Bios-3 system and ESA’s experience with the MELISSA program. Variants of a BLSS based on using Chlorella and/or Spirulina and higher plants for the flight period of the Mars mission are analyzed. It is proposed constructing a BLSS with a closed-loop material cycle for gas and water and for part of human waste. A higher-plant-based BLSS with the mass exchange loop closed to various degrees is proposed for a Mars planetary base. Various versions of BLSS configuration and degree of closure of mass exchange are considered, depending on the duration of the Mars mission, the diet of the crew, and some other conditions. Special consideration is given to problems of reliability and sustainability of material cycling in BLSS, which are related to production of additional oxygen inside the system. Technologies of constructing BLSS of various configurations are proposed and substantiated. Reasons are given for using physicochemical methods in BLSS as secondary tools both during the flight and the stay on Mars.
link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117706007198
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Developmentof small-scale hypobaric plant chambers

2007

E.G. Wilkerson, R.A. Bucklin, P.A. Fowler

publication: Applied Engineering in Agriculture

Abstract

A system of three small-scale hypobaric plant chambers was designed and built to simulate a Mars greenhouse environment and evaluate effects of this environment on evapotranspiration of radish plants. A glass bell jar was sealed atop aluminum bases designed to house a heater, fans, humidifier, and wiring. A data acquisition and control program was developed to control pressure, air temperature, relative humidity, and carbon dioxide concentration as well as monitor leaf temperature and plant weight. The system was successful as demonstrated by the average standard deviations from the set points during performance tests (set points in parentheses): pressure, 0.2 kPa (12 kPa); CO2 concentration, 235 ppm (9000 ppm); air temperature, 0.17C (24C); and relative humidity, 1.03 % (70 %).
doi: 10.13031/2013.23486 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=23486
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[citation] Researches in Bios-3, a closed controlled experiment facility of the Institute of Biophysics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science

2007

A. Tikohmirov, A. Degermendzhi, S. Ushakova, Y. Kudenko, N. Tikhomirova, Nl Motorin

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Application of a nutrient solution circulation system to plant cultivation in the Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities

2007

R. Arai, S. Tsuga, Y. Tako

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Effects of exposure to plants and nature on cognition and mood: A cognitive psychology perspective

2007

D.L. Rich

publication: unknown

Partial Abstract

Two theories posit the restorative benefits of exposure to plants and natural settings, either in the form of stress reduction and improved mood, or through enhancement of cognitive performance, specifically attention processes. Research conducted on the latter area has used a wide variety of tasks to measure attention, often without consideration to underlying cognitive processes. The main purpose of this research was to examine the effects of natural stimuli on cognition and mood from a cognitive science perspective, using measures that ...
link: https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/7914/dissertation%20july7.2007.pdf?sequence=1
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Electric lighting considerations for crop production in space

2007

H.H. Kim,R.M. Wheeler,J.C. Sager,J. Norikane,N.C. Yorio

publication: XXVII International Horticultural Congress - IHC2006: International Symposium on Advances in Environmental Control, Automation and Cultivation Systems for Sustainable, High-Quality Crop Production under Protected Cultivation

Abstract

Requirements of plant lighting systems for biological life support in space are based on a number of factors including spectral quality for plant growth, energy conversion efficiency, cost, reliability, durability, and equipment mass. Many light sources, from electric lamps to solar radiation, have been evaluated for this type of controlled environment applications. Among the technologies tested, sulfur-microwave electrode-less (microwave, MW) lamps and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have a high potential for application in advanced life support systems. The MW lamps are efficient and provide a broad spectrum, but the technology needs to distribute the point-source light evenly over a plant canopy and more durable microwave or radio frequency generators need to be developed. The LEDs offer a solid state framework and a long operating life, and continue to advance in terms of efficiency, available wavelengths, output, cost, and application methods. Many biologists are taking advantage of the unique characteristics of LEDs to study the effects of spectral quality on plant growth and development. Growing plants in space will be a vital part of future life support systems where the development of a highly optimized biomass production system is critical to the Exploration Vision of NASA. The latest technologies need to be evaluated and integrated with life support systems as they develop and evolve to further optimize the most cost-effective and reliable systems for space.
link: https://www.actahort.org/books/761/761_24.htm
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Sweet Potato: A review of its past, present and future role in human nutrition

2007

A.C. Bovell-Benjamin

publication: Advances in food and nutrition research

Abstract

The overall objective of this chapter is to review the past, present, and future role of the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam) in human nutrition. Specifically, the chapter describes the role of the sweet potato in human diets; outlines the biochemical and nutritional composition of the sweet potato with emphasis on its β‐carotene and anthocyanin contents; highlights sweet potato utilization, and its potential as value‐added products in human food systems; and demonstrates the potential of the sweet potato in the African context. Early records have indicated that the sweet potato is a staple food source for many indigenous populations in Central and South Americas, Ryukyu Island, Africa, the Caribbean, the Maori people, Hawaiians, and Papua New Guineans. Protein contents of sweet potato leaves and roots range from 4.0% to 27.0% and 1.0% to 9.0%, respectively. The sweet potato could be considered as an excellent novel source of natural health‐promoting compounds, such as β‐carotene and anthocyanins, for the functional food market. Also, the high concentration of anthocyanin and β‐carotene in sweet potato, combined with the high stability of the color extract make it a promising and healthier alternative to synthetic coloring agents in food systems. Starch and flour processing from sweet potato can create new economic and employment activities for farmers and rural households, and can add nutritional value to food systems. Repositioning sweet potato production and its potential for value‐added products will contribute substantially to utilizing its benefits and many uses in human food systems. Multidisciplinary, integrated research and development activities aimed at improving production, storage, postharvest and processing technologies, and quality of the sweet potato and its potential value‐added products are critical issues, which should be addressed globally.
doi: 10.1016/S1043-4526(06)52001-7 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043452606520017
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Carbon exchange rates of crops grown in NASA’s Biomass Production Chamber

2007

R.M. Wheeler, C.L. Mackowiak, G.W. Stutte, K.A. Corey, N.C. Yorio, B.V. Peterson, J.C. Sager, W.M. Knott

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Circulation of water in addition to CO2, O2 and plant biomass in an artificial ecosystem comprised of humans, goats and crops during 2-week closed habitation experiments using CEEF

2007

Yasuhiro Tako,Osamu Komatsubara,Shouichi Tsuga,Ryuji Arai,Kenji Koyama,Shuji Fukuda,Makoto Akaishi,Masato Ogasawara

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF) were installed to collect data for realistic estimation of radiocarbon transfer in the ecosystem. Two-week experiments were conducted three times from September to November of 2006, in which two human subjects called as eco-nauts were enclosed and worked in an airtight facility, the CEEF. The eco-nauts were changed after a week from beginning of each experiment. In these experiments, a Plant Module (PM) with 23 crops, including rice, soybean, peanut, and sugar beet, was connected to an Animal & Habitation Module (AHM) which included the eco-nauts and two goats. 91.8-94.6% (by weight) of the food consumed by the eco-nauts and 79% of the feed to the goats (straw, leaf and bran of rice, leaf and stem of soybean, and leaf, stem and shell of peanut) were produced from crops in the PM. Amount of oxygen produced by the crops was more than the amount consumed by respiration of human and animals in these experiments. The oxygen added to the atmosphere of the PM by photosynthesis of crops was separated and supplied to the atmosphere of the AHM. Increased carbon dioxide in the AHM atmosphere by respiration of eco-nauts and goats was separated and supplied back to atmosphere of the PM. Almost carbon in the waste was withdrawn and not recycled in these experiments. Therefore, extra carbon dioxide was added to the PM atmosphere in order to compensate for the demand from photosynthesis of the crops. In addition to carbon dioxide, oxygen and plant biomass, water was also circulated in the CEEF in 2006, for the first time. Average water amounts of input to and output from the PM were 2090 L d^-1 and 2080 L d^-1, respectively. The difference between them was less than 0.5% of the input, and was comparable to the amount of water with harvested crops. Average amount of water of input to and output from the AHM were 75.2 L d^-1 and 68.2 L d^-1, respectively. Urine of the eco-nauts (1.7 L d^-1) was withdrawn. Considerable water might be withdrawn as steam by pyrolysis of feces and urine of goats. These may account for the difference between the input and the output of water for the AHM. In the 2005 experiment, 46500 L of waste nutrient solution was withdrawn for 27 weeks of a whole growing period including 10 weeks of harvesting period. In the 2006 experiment, only 500 L of that was withdrawn during 38 weeks including 18 weeks of harvesting period. However, harvested edible biomass of almost crops in 2006 was less than that in 2005. It is considered that usage of newly made nutrient solution only during seedling growth period could improve final biomass production considerably.
doi: 10.4271/2007-01-3091 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2007-01-3091/
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Preparation and characterization of sweetpotato peels for use as dietary fiber enhancement in space foods

2007

Adelia C. Bovell-Benjamin,Chellani Hathorn,Peter Gichuhi

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The study prepared and characterized sweetpotato peels (SPP) for use as a dietary fiber supplement in space foods. SPP were fresh, dehydrated, blanched/dehydrated, frozen/dehydrated, freeze-dried, and blanched/freeze-dried. Total fiber, β-carotene, water-, oil-holding and swelling capacity, moisture, ash, protein, water activity and vitamin C were measured. Fresh SPP had 7.8% total fiber, 5.2 and 2.6% being dietary (insoluble) and functional (soluble) fibers, respectively. The total fiber content of the dehydrated SPP was 33.7% with roughly 11% functional fiber. β-carotene contents for the SPP were 23,040, 17,280 and 16,860 µg/100 g for blanched/freeze-dried, blanched, freeze-dried SPP, respectively. The fresh peels contained 4,848 µg/100 g β-carotene. The water holding capacity of the blanched/freeze-dried, blanched and dehydrated SPP were 15.6±1.4, 13.9±0.4 and 11.1±0.6 g/g, respectively. The oil holding capacity of the freeze-dried SPP (8.3±1.1) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than all the others except the blanched/freeze-dried peels. SPP is a potentially good source of dietary fiber for enhancement of space foods.
doi: 10.4271/2007-01-3053 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2007-01-3053/
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β-Carotene content of dehydrated hydroponic sweetpotatoes grown under different lighting conditions

2007

S.P. McDonald,P.N. Gichuhi,D. Mortley,A.C. Bovell-Benjamin

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L. LAM.) is a versatile and underexploited food crop. Consumption of sweetpotato based processed foods provide β-carotene, which is the major precursor of vitamin A. The sweetpotato has the potential to provide antioxidants that may help reduce the radiation risks astronauts face while in space. Therefore the objective of this experiment was to evaluate β-carotene in dehydrated hydroponic sweetpotato cultivars. Hydroponic cultivars WHATLEY/LORETAN and NCC-58 were grown with and without 7-10 μmole of light. WHATLEY/LORETAN contained the highest amount of β-carotene content average of 31 μg/100g in dehydrated hydroponic sweetpotatoes compared to NCC-58 with 18.5 μg/100g.
doi: 10.4271/2007-01-3051 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2007-01-3051/
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CEEF: Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities

2007

Susumu Nozoe,Osamu Komatsubara,Masanori Shinohara,Youichi Aibe,Yasuhiro Tako,Keiji Nitta

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The CEEF (Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities) was constructed for collecting data on carbon transfer from the atmosphere to crops, livestock and humans by conducting material circulation experiments, including the habitation of humans and animals and growing crops which supply food and feed, within a closed environment. The main objective of the CEEF project involves understanding the transfer of radiocarbon in the environment via experiments using stable carbon isotopes. On the other hand, the project is also a good example demonstrating human life in ecosystem material circulation. Many people visited and toured the CEEF and the project has been introduced by the media. The candidate inhabitants, who were selected for the project following medical and psychological testing, are called “eco-nauts”. The CEEF project was introduced and eco-nauts participated in events with the intention of educating the public on the human impacts on an ecosystem made by a science museum. This paper reports on these outreach activities related to the CEEF.
doi: 10.4271/2007-01-3068 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2007-01-3068/
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Separating the effects of hypobaria and hypoxia on lettuce: growth and gas exchange

2007

Chuanjiu He,Fred T. Davies,Ronald E. Lacey

publication: Physiologia Plantarum

Abstract

The objectives of this research were to determine the influence of hypobaria (reduced atmospheric pressure) and reduced partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) [hypoxia] on carbon dioxide (CO2) assimilation (CA), dark-period respiration (DPR) and growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Buttercrunch). Lettuce plants were grown under variable total gas pressures [25 and 101 kPa (ambient)] at 6, 12 or 21 kPa pO2 (approximately the partial pressure in air at normal pressure). Growth of lettuce was comparable between ambient and low total pressure but lower at 6 kPa pO2 (hypoxic) than at 12 or 21 kPa pO2. The specific leaf area of 6 kPa pO2 plants was lower, indicating thicker leaves associated with hypoxia. Roots were most sensitive to hypoxia, with a 50–70% growth reduction. Leaf chlorophyll levels were greater at low than at ambient pressure. Hypobaria and hypoxia did not affect plant water relations. While hypobaria did not adversely affect plant growth or CA, hypoxia did. There was comparable CA and a lower DPR in low than in ambient total pressure plants under non-limiting CO2 levels (100 Pa pCO2, nearly three-fold that in normal air). The CA/DPR ratio was higher at low than at ambient total pressure, particularly at 6 kPa pO2– indicating a greater efficiency of CA/DPR in low-pressure plants. There was generally no significant interaction between hypoxia and hypobaria. We conclude that lettuce can be grown under subambient pressure (≅25% of normal earth ambient total pressure) without adverse effects on plant growth or gas exchange. Furthermore, hypobaric plants were more resistant to hypoxic conditions that reduced gas exchange and plant growth.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2007.00946.x link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2007.00946.x
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Early detection of nutrient and biotic stress in Phaseolus vulgaris

2007

L. Chaerle,D. Hagenbeek,X. Vanrobaeys,D. Van Der Straeten

publication: International Journal of Remote Sensing

Abstract

Prerequisites for optimal, high crop yield are disease‐free growth and an equilibrated supply of nutrients. Early signatures of stress‐altered physiology, before appearance of symptoms in the visible spectrum, allow timely treatment. Early detection of stress development was carried out on phaseolus vulgaris bean infected with the agriculturally important grey mould pathogen and under conditions of magnesium deficiency, limiting photosynthesis. During stress development, bean plants were monitored by time‐lapse imaging with thermal, video and chlorophyll fluorescence cameras, mounted on a gantry robot system. For early detection of grey mould infection, chlorophyll fluorescence imaging proved to be the most sensitive. This technique detected magnesium deficiency at least three days before visual symptoms appeared. Further development of non‐contact technology for plant health monitoring will help to achieve optimal productivity in greenhouse and field cultures. Associated establishment of a stress catalogue based on early symptoms will allow swift diagnosis.
doi: 10.1080/01431160601024259 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431160601024259
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Multicolor fluorescence imaging for early detection of the hypersensitive reaction to tobacco mosaic virus

2007

Laury Chaerle,Sándor Lenk,Dik Hagenbeek,Claus Buschmann,Dominique Van Der Straeten

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

The physiological status of plants can nowadays be promptly monitored with non-invasive methods. This opens the possibility to continuously follow-up plant performance and permits to detect stress-induced deviations presymptomatically. Upon stress, plants may synthesize specific compounds, depending on the causal agent. Such compounds may alter the absorption of the light impinging on plant leaves, hence the spectrum of reflected, re-emitted, and transmitted light changes. UV-excited fluorescence imaging specifically allows visualization of the accumulation of phenolic compounds, e.g. those associated with the hypersensitive response to pathogens. By using imaging at regular intervals (time-lapse series) of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection in resistant tobacco we aimed at the description and quantification of the kinetics of blue-green fluorescence compared to the visual development of the disease. Presymptomatic responses to TMV infection were observed with a multicolor fluorescence and reflectance imaging setup. The onset of increases in blue-green and chlorophyll fluorescence were comparable in timing, although further symptom development was strikingly different. Compounds known to accumulate during the hypersensitive response and displaying blue-green fluorescence revealed different dynamics of fluorescence evolution in time. The multichannel imaging system permitted to discern the key components salicylic acid and scopoletin. In contrast, for the compatible interaction between TMV and non-resistant tobacco, no presymptomatic responses were detected on inoculated leaves. This work proves the potential of multispectral imaging to unveil stress-associated signatures, and the power of blue-green fluorescence imaging to monitor accumulation of secondary compounds.
doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2006.01.011 pubmed: 16545491 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161706000563
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MELiSSA: The European project of closed life support systems

2007

Ch Lasseur, C. Paillé, B. Lamaze, P. Rebeyre, F. Marty

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Biological life support systems for a Mars mission planetary base: Problems and prospects

2007

A.A. Tikhomirov, S.A. Ushakova, N.P. Kovaleva, B. Lamaze, M. Lobo, Ch. Lasseur

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The study develops approaches to designing biological life support systems for the Mars mission – for the flight conditions and for a planetary base – using experience of the Institute of Biophysics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBP SB RAS) with the Bios-3 system and ESA’s experience with the MELISSA program. Variants of a BLSS based on using Chlorella and/or Spirulina and higher plants for the flight period of the Mars mission are analyzed. It is proposed constructing a BLSS with a closed-loop material cycle for gas and water and for part of human waste. A higher-plant-based BLSS with the mass exchange loop closed to various degrees is proposed for a Mars planetary base. Various versions of BLSS configuration and degree of closure of mass exchange are considered, depending on the duration of the Mars mission, the diet of the crew, and some other conditions. Special consideration is given to problems of reliability and sustainability of material cycling in BLSS, which are related to production of additional oxygen inside the system. Technologies of constructing BLSS of various configurations are proposed and substantiated. Reasons are given for using physicochemical methods in BLSS as secondary tools both during the flight and the stay on Mars.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2006.11.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117706007198
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Rethinking acclimation of growth and maintenance respiration of tomato in elevated CO2: Effects of a sudden change in light at different temperatures

2007

J. Frantz, N. Cometti, M. van Iersel, B. Bugbee

publication: Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology

Abstract

Aims Changes in light and temperature are among the most common and most profound environmental perturbations. The independent effects of light and temperature on photosynthesis and respiration are well studied in single leaves, but are less well studied in whole plants. The short and long term influence of light and temperature on carbon use efficiency is also poorly understood, and is commonly modeled to remain constant over a wide range of conditions. We sought to determine the primary effects of changing light at two growth temperatures on photosynthesis, respiration, and their balance, as defined by carbon use efficiency.
Methods We separated respiration into growth and maintenance components using whole-canopy gas-exchange in an elevated CO2 environment in a controlled environment, and supplemented that information with tissue analysis.
Important findings Decreases in light level decreased carbon use efficiency through a reduction in the maintenance coefficient, increased the growth coefficient, and reduced partitioning of N in protein. Growth temperature did not significantly affect either maintenance or growth respiration coefficients, suggesting that long-term temperature responses can differ greatly from short-term observations.

doi: 10.17521/cjpe.2007.0090 link: https://www.plant-ecology.com/EN/Y2007/V31/I4/695
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Feasibility of a Mars surface inflatable greenhouse: Availability of photosynthetic irradiance and durability of transparent polymer films

2007

J.D. Clawson

publication: Thesis

Abstract

Assessing the feasibility of an inflatable Mars surface greenhouse has been hampered by the lack of key information, primarily the availability of photosynthetic radiation and the durability of transparent polymer films from which greenhouses might be constructed. A more complete estimate of the available photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) has been developed, which combines the output from multispectral radiative transfer code developed for Mars with global dust measurements from NASA’s Mars exploration probes. In contrast to previous Mars PAR estimates, this new approach captures the variation in spectral contribution to PAR levels as a result of diurnal variations in zenith angle and/or seasonal variations in dust loading and provides a global view of PAR availability as opposed to earlier estimates based on single landing site data. Further, transparent polymer films were evaluated for their suitability for use in a Mars surface greenhouse, which included exposure of several candidate materials to simulated Mars UV conditions. The observed degradation highlighted the need for UV protection if the materials are to survive for long durations in the Mars environment. Transparent, UV-resistant materials were evaluated as a potential external protective laminate to filter UV from the underlying structure. A review of earlier space environmental tests on these candidate films revealed these tests did not include the effect of simultaneous mechanical loading on material degradation. The most promising candidate film was tested for the affect of UV on the time to creep rupture of the filter material. The results indicate that the selected UV-resistant material would have difficulty meeting the proposed lifetime requirements of a greenhouse as an integrated laminate under loading. Therefore, it is proposed to remove the material as a laminate of the structural membrane and utilize it as a removable covering that can be replaced at intervals throughout the lifetime of the greenhouse. Finally, the results of this research will allow better estimates of the equivalent system mass of an inflatable Mars surface greenhouse, which improve mission analyses and trade studies.
link: https://search.proquest.com/openview/5b850d397ce989b0fc572e137bd33fb6/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750
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Space agriculture for habitation on Mars—Perspective from Japan and Asia

2007

M. Yamashita, N. Katayama, H. Hashimoto, K. Toita-Yokotani

publication: Journal of The Japan Society of Microgravity Application

Abstract

Manned Mars exploration at a large and long scale inevitably requires recycle of materials to support human life on a distant isolated outpost. A conceptual design is developed for Martian agricultural system based on biologically regenerative functions. Environment in a green house dome will be maintained at sub-atmospheric pressure with proper partial pressure of oxygen and other gas species. Photosynthetic conversion of carbon dioxide and water to oxygen and biomass is the major driving mechanism for habitation on Mars. Water recycle, at a quantity required for human life, can be made by respiration of plant leaves. It should fully utilize a solar energy received on the Martian　surface for the photosynthetic reaction. Sub-surface water and atmospheric carbon dioxide mined on Mars should be also associated with the plant cultination system. We selected rice, soybean, sweet potato, and green-yellow vegetable for the core food materials in space agriculture. From nutritional viewpoint, animal origin material should be supplemented to the diet with lipids, including cholesterol, vitamin D, and B12. Insect eating is proposed for the best use of the limited resource available for space agriculture. Silkworm and hawkmoth pupa are candidate for this purpose. Co-culture of rice, Azolla (aquatic fern), and loach fish is promising as well. One of the core technological functions in concept is hyper-ther-mophilic aerobic composting bacterial ecology. It plays a role of processing human metabolic waste and inedible biomass and of converting them to fertilizer for plants cultivation. One of the characteristics of the technology is the processing temperature high at 80-100℃. The quality of the compost has been shown essential to create a healthy regeberative system. In the materials recycle loop, handling of sodium, which is required for human physiology but negatively affects on ordinary plant growth, is another challenge in space agriculture. Cultivating salt accumulating plant species, such as ice plant, or harvesting potassium made by marine algae is promising candidate for this. Space agriculture, with our perspective from Japan and Asia, might be beneficial for solving the global problems of food shortage and loss of agricultural land at increasing human population.
doi: 10.15011/jasma.24.4.340 link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jasma/24/4/24_340/_article/-char/en
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Measurements and modeling of variable gravity effects on water distribution and flow in unsaturated porous media

2007

Robert Heinse,Scott B. Jones,Susan L. Steinberg,Markus Tuller,Dani Or

publication: Vadose Zone Journal

Abstract

Liquid behavior under reduced gravity conditions is of considerable interest for various components of life-support systems required for manned space missions. High costs and limited opportunities for spaceflight experiments hinder advances in reliable design and operation of elements involving fluids in unsaturated porous media such as plant growth facilities. We used parabolic flight experiments to characterize hydraulic properties under variable gravity conditions deduced from variations in matric potential over a range of water contents. We designed and tested novel measurement cells that allowed dynamic control of water content. Embedded time domain reflectometry probes and fast-responding tensiometers measured changes in water content and matric potential. For near-saturated conditions, we observed rapid establishment of equilibrium matric potentials during the recurring 20-s periods of microgravity. As media water content decreased, the concurrent decrease in hydraulic diffusivity resulted in limited attainment of equilibrium distributions of water content and matric potential in microgravity, and water content heterogeneity within the sample was influenced by the preceding hypergravity phase. For steady fluxes through saturated columns, we observed linear and constant hydraulic gradients during variable gravity, yielding saturated hydraulic conductivities similar to values measured under terrestrial gravity. Our results suggest that water distribution and retention behavior are sensitive to varied gravitational forces, whereas saturated hydraulic conductivity appears to be unaffected. Comparisons between measurements and simulations based on the Richards equation were in reasonable agreement, suggesting that fundamental laws of fluid flow and distribution for macroscopic transport derived on Earth are also applicable in microgravity.
doi: 10.2136/vzj2006.0105 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/vzj2006.0105
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Spaceflight effects on consecutive generations of peas grown onboard the Russian segment of the International Space Station

2007

Vladimir N. Sychev,Margarita A. Levinskikh,Sergey A. Gostimsky,Gail E. Bingham,Igor G. Podolsky

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

In the period from March 2003 to April 2005 we fulfilled five experimental cultivations of genetically marked dwarf pea species in greenhouse Lada installed in the Russian segment (RS) of the International Space Station (ISS). The purpose of this series of experiments was to make morphologic and genetic analysis of pea plants grown in successive generations.
According to our results, pea growth and development over the full cycle of ontogenesis (from seed to seed) taking place in space greenhouse Lada were not different as compared with the ground control plants. In addition, four successive pea crops gathered in space flight did not loose their reproductive functions and formed viable seeds.
Genetic analysis of the plants grown from the “space” and “ground” seeds produced by the first to fourth successive crops was performed using the methods of chromosomal aberrations count and Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (molecular method). No genetic polymorphism was found either in the experimental or control crops. This can serve as a sound argument for the supposition that the genetic apparatus of plants is not impacted by exposure of several successive generations to the conditions of space flight.

doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.09.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576506003183
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Volatile ethanol affects germination and growth of lettuce, radish, soybean and wheat seeds

2007

G.W. Stutte, I. Eraso, S. Matthews

publication: Proceedings 33rd PGRSA Annual Meeting

Abstract

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are important indoor air pollutants, mainly in spaces lacking adequate ventilation and containing off gassing materials and are particularly acute in closed environments, such as spacecraft. The objective of this research is to determine the effects ethanol (EtOH) on the growth and development of various salad crops that have been previously evaluated for their potential for growth and cultivation on extended space missions.
link: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20083058218
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Microbial functions in space: Mars transit to early planetary base exploration missions

2007

J.L. Garland

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

Microbial processing of liquid and solid wastes may play a role in the advanced life support systems of nearer term human exploration missions such as transit vehicles to Mars or initial surface bases on either the Moon or Mars. Recycling wastewater (urine, atmospheric condensate, hygiene water) is a critical component of reducing storage and resupply requirements on such missions, and microbial treatment of all or part of the waste stream may improve overall treatment efficiency. As small-scale plant systems (i.e., 5–10 m² person^-1) are used to supplement food storage, microbial processing of both wastewater and edible plant material will facilitate nutrient and water recycling through the biomass production systems.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.09.016 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576506003298
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The Study of the Genetic Effects in Generation of Pea Plants Cultivated During the Whole Cycle of Ontogenesis on the Board of RS ISS.

2007

S. A. Gostimsky,M. A. Levinskikh,V. N. Sychev,Z. G. Kokaeva,O. P. Dribnokhodova,G. A. Khartina,G. Bingham

publication: Russian Journal of Genetics

Abstract

Results of studies on growth and development of offspring of two genetically marked dwarf pea lines planted during the whole ontogenesis cycle in the Lada space greenhouse on board of Russian Segment of International Space Station (RS ISS) are presented. The offspring of M1 and M2 plants grown from seeds formed during space flight was examined under conditions of Earth-based cultivation. It had been shown that growth and developmental characteristics, frequency of chromosome aberrations in primary root meristem and level of molecular polymorphism revealed in individual plants via RAPD method show no significant differences between offspring of “space-grown” and control seeds.
doi: 10.1134/S1022795407080066 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1022795407080066
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Comparative treatments of organically grown Sweetpotatoes for use in space foods

2007

C.M. Simelton-Edgeston, P. Gichuhi, J.K. Kpomblkekou-A, A. Bovell-Benjamin

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

This study evaluated moisture, ash and color in sweetpotato varieties: [Beauregard (BEAU), Porto Rican (PR) and Nugget (N)]. The experimental design was a randomized-complete-block with four replications, four treatments and three varieties. Treatments included control without fertilizer (CTRL), broiler litter (BL), Crimson-clover (CLOV) and NPK fertilizers. BEAU had the lowest L values, and was darker in color than PR and N. Mean moisture content for the four groups was 60.1± 6.7% CTRL; 54.7± 7.9% BL; 60.9±5.1% CLOV and 63.2± 6.1% for NPK. Mean ash contents were: 2.5± 0.1; 3.5± 0.3 and 2.1± 0.02 for BEA, PR and N, respectively.
doi: 10.4271/2007-01-3052 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2007-01-3052/
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Convective heat transfer over a flat plate in hypobaric conditions

2007

E.G. Wilkerson, R.A. Bucklin, P.A. Fowler, V.Y. Rygalov

publication: Transactions of the ASABE

Abstract

Plants will likely be significant components of life support systems for future manned exploration missions to Mars. Design constraints make it necessary to maintain a greenhouse on Mars at pressures in the range of 0.1 to 0.25 of Earth standard pressure (101.3 kPa). The resistance to sensible and latent heat loss decreases with pressure, which may cause increased rates of plant evapotranspiration, leading to possible water stress of plants growing in hypobaric conditions. The objective of this research was to analyze the effect of pressure and air velocity on convective heat transfer from a flat plate in hypobaric conditions to simulate leaf convective heat transfer in a greenhouse on Mars. Convective heat transfer analysis was performed both theoretically and experimentally for a flat plate. A classical heat transfer model for both free and forced convection regimes was compared with data from controlled experiments. As predicted, external resistance was proportional to both pressure and air velocity. The thickness of the velocity boundary layer increased significantly at low pressures and air velocities less than 1 m s-1.
doi: 10.13031/2013.23138 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=23138
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Spaceflight effects on consecutive generations of peas grown onboard the Russian segment of the International Space Station.

2007

Vladimir N. Sychev,Margarita A. Levinskikh,Sergey A. Gostimsky,Gail E. Bingham,Igor G. Podolsky

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

In the period from March 2003 to April 2005 we fulfilled five experimental cultivations of genetically marked dwarf pea species in greenhouse Lada installed in the Russian segment (RS) of the International Space Station (ISS). The purpose of this series of experiments was to make morphologic and genetic analysis of pea plants grown in successive generations.
According to our results, pea growth and development over the full cycle of ontogenesis (from seed to seed) taking place in space greenhouse Lada were not different as compared with the ground control plants. In addition, four successive pea crops gathered in space flight did not loose their reproductive functions and formed viable seeds.
Genetic analysis of the plants grown from the “space” and “ground” seeds produced by the first to fourth successive crops was performed using the methods of chromosomal aberrations count and Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (molecular method). No genetic polymorphism was found either in the experimental or control crops. This can serve as a sound argument for the supposition that the genetic apparatus of plants is not impacted by exposure of several successive generations to the conditions of space flight.

doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.09.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576506003183
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Seed germination and seedling growth at reduced atmospheric pressure and oxygen partial pressure

2007

C. Whekamp, M.A. Stasiak, Y. Zheng, M.A. Dixon

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Shoot regeneration in vitro from diverse genotypes of sweetpotato and multiple shoot production per explant

2007

Ramana M. Gosukonda,C.S. Prakash,Ananta Porobo Dessai

publication: HortScience

Partial Abstract

Materials and Methods Plant material. The sweetpotato genotypes used in this study were obtained as in vitro shoot tips from the US Dept. of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Regional Plant Introduction Station, Griffin, Ga.(Jarret, 1989). As sweetpotato is vegetatively propagated, each genotype thus represents a clone. Plants were maintained as shoot cultures in vitro using a multiplication medium consisting of Murashige and Skoog (MS)(1962) salts with (in mg• liter–1) 100 myoinositol, 0.4 thiamine hydrochloric acid, 100 L ...
link: https://www.academia.edu/download/96966664/article-p1074.pdf
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The effects of elevated root zone temperature on the development and carbon partitioning of spring wheat

2007

Oscar Monje,Sylvia Anderson,Gary W. Stutte

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

The effect of elevated root zone temperature (+0, +4, +6, +8, and +11 °C) on growth rates and carbon partitioning of ‘USU-Apogee’ spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants growing at constant air temperature (24 °C) in Turface was investigated. This experiment was performed to determine if wheat growth responded to elevated root zone temperature (RZT) and if so, to determine the temperatures for those responses. The RZT treatments were initiated 5 d after planting (DAP) to prevent RZT effects on germination from affecting results. The effects of increased RZT on development and carbon partitioning were determined from data collected during destructive harvests at 7, 15, 22, and 28 DAP. At a constant air temperature of 24 °C, reduced plant height was observed by 15 DAP at 30 °C RZT (+6 °C), and reduced leaf area was observed by 22 DAP at 28 °C RZT (+4 °C). Changes in leaf photosynthesis and stomatal conductance (g S) were not observed until 35 °C RZT (+11 °C), which was lethal by 22 DAP. Changes in carbon partitioning resulted in decreased leaf mass and increased stem and head mass fractions as well as accelerated development of reproductive structures. Although elevated RZT temperatures above air temperature affected physiological and morphologic parameters, they did not change plant phenology.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.132.2.178 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/132/2/article-p178.xml
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Entomophagy: A key to space agriculture

2008

N. Katayama,Y. Ishikawa,M. Takaoki,M. Yamashita,S. Nakayama,K. Kiguchi,R. Kok,H. Wada,J. Mitsuhashi

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The intentional inclusion of insects in space-based agricultural schemes and their use as human food (entomophagy) were examined. Insects could be useful both from an ecosystem design point of view, as well as serving as a protein-rich food for human occupants. Some candidate species are the silkworm, the hawkmoth, the drugstore beetle, and the termite. Plants in the ecosystem would include rice, soybean, sweet potato, and green–yellow vegetable but in combination they still lead to a diet that is deficient (for humans) in several nutrients. Normally these are supplied with animal-derived foods such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, etc. However, they can also be derived from insects which may be much easier to produce than any of the foregoing, and can also fulfill other useful ecological roles. Spinoff from this research could include some solutions to terrestrial problems such as supplying critical amino acids to people who suffer from a shortage of more conventional animal-derived proteins.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.01.027 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707000427
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Physiologic and metabolic responses of wheat seedlings to elevated and super-elevated carbon dioxide

2008

Lanfang H. Levine,Hirokazu Kasahara,Joachim Kopka,Alexander Erban,Ines Fehrl,Fatma Kaplan,Wei Zhao,Ramon C. Littell,Charles Guy,Raymond Wheeler,John Sager,Aaron Mills,Howard G. Levine

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The metabolic consequence of suboptimal (400 μmol mol−1 or ppm), near-optimal (1500 ppm) and supra-optimal (10,000 ppm) atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations [CO2] was investigated in an attempt to reveal plausible underlying mechanisms for the differential physiological and developmental responses to increasing [CO2]. Both non-targeted and targeted metabolite profiling by GC–MS and LC–MS were employed to examine primary and secondary metabolites in wheat (Triticum aestivum, cv Yocoro rojo) continuously exposed to these [CO2] levels for 14, 21 and 28 days. Metabolite profile was altered by both [CO2] and physiological age. In general, plants grown under high [CO2] exhibited a metabolite profile characteristic of older plants under ambient CO2. Elevated [CO2] resulted in higher levels of phosphorylated sugar intermediates, though no clear trend in the content of reducing sugars was observed. Transient starch content was enhanced by increasing [CO2] to a much greater extent at 10,000 ppm CO2 than at 1500 ppm CO2. The percentage increase of starch content resulting from CO2 enrichment declined as plants develope. In contrast, elevated [CO2] promoted the accumulation of secondary metabolites (flavonoids) progressively to a greater extent as plants became mature. Elevated [CO2] to 1500 ppm induced a higher initial growth rate, while super-elevated [CO2] appeared to negate such initial growth promotion. However, after 4 weeks, there was no difference in vegetative growth between 1500 and 10,000 ppm CO2-grown plants, both elevated CO2 levels resulted in an overall 25% increase in biomass over the control plants. More interestingly, elevated atmospheric [CO2] reduced evapotranspiration rate (ET), but further increase to the supra-optimal level resulted in increased ET (a reversed trend), i.e. ET at 1500 ppm < ET at 10,000 ppm < ET at 400 ppm. The differential effect of elevated and super-elevated CO2 on plants was further reflected in the nitrogen dynamics. These results provide the potential metabolic basis for the differential productivity and stomatal function of plants grown under elevated and super-elevated CO2 levels.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2008.07.014 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117708004146
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Treating urine by Spirulina platensis

2008

Chenliang Yang,Hong Liu,Ming Li,Chengying Yu,Gurevich Yu

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

In this paper Spirulina platensis with relatively high nutrition was cultivated to treat human urine. Batch culture showed that the consumption of N in human urine could reach to 99%, and the consumption of P was more than 99.9%, and 1.05 g biomass was obtained by treating 12.5 ml synthetic human urine; continuous culture showed that S. platensis could consume N, Cl, K and S in human urine effectively, and the consumption could reach to 99.9%, 75.0%, 83.7% and 96.0%, respectively, and the consumption of P was over 99.9%, which is very important to increase the closure and safety of the bioregenerative life support system (BLSS).
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.03.008 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576508001124
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Crop productivities and radiation use efficiencies for bioregenerative life support

2008

R.M. Wheeler,C.L. Mackowiak,G.W. Stutte,N.C. Yorio,L.M. Ruffe,J.C. Sager,R.P. Prince,W.M. Knott

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

NASA’s Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) at Kennedy Space Center was decommissioned in 1998, but several crop tests were conducted that have not been reported in the open literature. These include several monoculture studies with wheat, soybean, potato, lettuce, and tomato. For all of these studies, either 10 or 20 m2 of plants were grown in an atmospherically closed chamber (113 m3 vol.) using a hydroponic nutrient film technique along with elevated CO2 (1000 or 1200 μmol mol−1). Canopy light (PAR) levels ranged from 17 to 85 mol m−2 d−1 depending on the species and photoperiod. Total biomass (DM) productivities reached 39.6 g m−2 d−1 for wheat, 27.2 g m−2 d−1 for potato, 19.6 g m−2 d−1 for tomato, 15.7 g m−2 d−1 for soybean, and 7.7 g m−2 d−1 for lettuce. Edible biomass (DM) productivities reached 18.4 g m−2 d−1 for potato, 11.3 g m−2 d−1 for wheat, 9.8 g m−2 d−1 for tomato, 7.1 g m−2 d−1 for lettuce, and 6.0 g m−2 d−1 for soybean. The corresponding radiation (light) use efficiencies for total biomass were 0.64 g mol−1 PAR for potato, 0.59 g DM mol−1 for wheat, 0.51 g mol−1 for tomato, 0.46 g mol−1 for lettuce, and 0.43 g mol−1 for soybean. Radiation use efficiencies for edible biomass were 0.44 g mol−1 for potato, 0.42 g mol−1 for lettuce, 0.25 g mol−1 for tomato, 0.17 g DM mol−1 for wheat, and 0.16 g mol−1 for soybean. By initially growing seedlings at a dense spacing and then transplanting them to the final production area could have saved about 12 d in each production cycle, and hence improved edible biomass productivities and radiation use efficiencies by 66% for lettuce (to 11.8 g m−2 d−1 and 0.70 g mol−1), 16% for tomato (to 11.4 g m−2 d−1and 0.29 g mol−1), 13% for soybean (to 6.9 g m−2 d−1 and 0.19 g mol−1), and 13% for potato (to 20.8 g m−2 d−1 and 0.50 g mol−1). Since wheat was grown at higher densities, transplanting seedlings would not have improved yields. Tests with wheat resulted in a relatively low harvest index of 29%, which may have been caused by ethylene or other organic volatile compounds (VOCs) accumulating in the chamber. Assuming a higher harvest index of 40% could be achieved by scrubbing VOCs, productivity of wheat seed could have been improved nearly 40% to 15.8 g m−2 d−1 and edible biomass radiation use efficiency to 0.30 g mol−1.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.06.059 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707007065
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Development of a CELSS experiment facility

2008

S. Guo, Y. Tang, J. Zhu, X. Wang, Y.Y. Lin, H.Feng W. Ai, X. Liu, L. Qin

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

A CELSS Experimental Facility was developed two years ago. It contains a volume of about 40.0 m3 and a cultivating area of about 8.4 m2; its interior atmospheric parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, oxygen concentration, carbon dioxide concentration, total pressure, lighting intensity, photoperiod, water content in the growing-matrix, CO2-added accumulative amount, O2-released accumulative amount and ethylene concentration are all controlled and logged automatically and effectively; its growing system consists of two rows of racks along its left-and-right sides separately, each side holds two upper-and-lower layers, and the vertical distance of each growing bed can be adjusted automatically and independently; lighting sources consist of both red (95%) and blue (5%) light-emitting diodes (LED), and the average lighting intensity of each lamp bank at 20-cm distance position under it, reaches to 255.0 μmol m−2 s−1. After that, demonstrating tests were carried out and were finally followed by growing lettuce in the facility. The results showed that all subsystems operated well and all parameters were controlled automatically and efficiently. The lettuce plants in the system could grow much well. Successful development of this system laid a necessary foundation for future larger-scale studies on CELSS integration technique.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.09.029 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707009702
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Feeding scenario of the silkworm Bombyx Mori, L. in the BLSS

2008

XiaoHui Yu,Hong Liu,Ling Tong

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

A simple subunit of the bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) consisting of the ground-controlled mulberry (Morus alba L.) and the silkworms was set up on the ground. The mulberry tree could provide nutrient mulberry fruits for astronauts and its leaves as the main feedstuff for the silkworms until their third instar. Astronauts utilized curled lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) stem as vegetables and the silkworms over third instar could be fed on 65% of inedible leaves of the lettuce. About 71.4% of protein were detected in the silkworm larval powder; thus, 105 silkworms could satisfy the requirement of one person per day. Besides, 18 kinds of amino acids were determined in the obtained silkworm powder. Moreover, the R-criterion was suggested to estimate and optimize the animal feeding facilities. The scenario of treating the wastes is also proposed in this paper. Our results may be valuable for the establishment of a complex BLSS in the future.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.02.001 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576508000544
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Quality characteristics of radish grown under reduced atmospheric pressure

2008

Lanfang H. Levine,Patricia A. Bisbee,Jeffrey T. Richards,Michele N. Birmele,Ronald L. Prior,Michele Perchonok,Mike Dixon,Neil C. Yorio,Gary W. Stutte,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

This study addresses whether reduced atmospheric pressure (hypobaria) affects the quality traits of radish grown under such environments. Radish (Raphanus sativus L. cv. Cherry Bomb Hybrid II) plants were grown hydroponically in specially designed hypobaric plant growth chambers at three atmospheric pressures; 33, 66, and 96 kPa (control). Oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressures were maintained constant at 21 and 0.12 kPa, respectively. Plants were harvested at 21 days after planting, with aerial shoots and swollen hypocotyls (edible portion of the radish referred to as the “root” hereafter) separated immediately upon removal from the chambers. Samples were subsequently evaluated for their sensory characteristics (color, taste, overall appearance, and texture), taste-determining factors (glucosinolate and soluble carbohydrate content and myrosinase activity), proximate nutrients (protein, dietary fiber, and carbohydrate) and potential health benefit attributes (antioxidant capacity). In roots of control plants, concentrations of glucosinolate, total soluble sugar, and nitrate, as well as myrosinase activity and total antioxidant capacity (measured as ORACFL), were 2.9, 20, 5.1, 9.4, and 1.9 times greater than the amount in leaves, respectively. There was no significant difference in total antioxidant capacity, sensory characteristics, carbohydrate composition, or proximate nutrient content among the three pressure treatments. However, glucosinolate content in the root and nitrate concentration in the leaf declined as the atmospheric pressure decreased, suggesting perturbation to some nitrogen-related metabolism.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.03.082 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707003055
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Bioconversion of rice straw into soil-like substrate

2008

Chengying Yu,Hong Liu,Yidong Xing,N.S. Manukovsky,V.S. Kovalev,Yu.L. Gurevich

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

To increase the closure of bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS), the bioconversion of rice straw into a soil-like substrate (SLS) by mushrooms and worms has been studied. The results showed that rice straw could be treated better by aerobic fermentation and succeeding growth of mushrooms Pleurotus ostreatus. In this process the total content of lignocellulose in the straw was removed by 37.74%. Furthermore, 46.68 g (fresh weight) of mushrooms could be produced from 100.0 g (dry weight) of rice straw. During the conversion of rice straw into a starting SLS by mushrooms and worms, the matter loss was 77.31%. The lettuce has been planted in the SLS and the yield when lettuce was cultivated on the SLS (8.77 g m^{-2^{day^-1)
was comparable to the yield obtained on the nutrient solution. In addition, the silicon in the SLS ash can reach upto 32% and the circulation of it is expected during the growth of rice.}}
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.03.010 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576508001227
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The carbon cycle in a bioregenerative life support system with a soil-like substrate

2008

Yu.L. Gurevich,N.S. Manukovsky,V.S. Kovalev,A.G. Degermendzy,Dawei Hu,EnZhu Hu,Hong Liu

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

A mass-flow model of carbon cycle in a bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) including Resource, Plant Growth, Food Processing, Human, Waste Processing, and Waste Storage Modules was developed. A human received food from Plant Growth and Resource Modules. Plants were assumed to be growing on the soil-like substrate (SLS). Another function of SLS was balancing the carbon cycle. The input of BLSS was set to 81 g of carbon per day along with food from the Resource Module. To balance the carbon cycle an equal amount of carbon was removed from BLSS along with urine, feces, plant wastes, and SLS. A mass flow of carbon cycle was used to simulate the effect of light intensity on the basic parameters of the Plant Growth Module. It was calculated that the stationary dry mass of SLS increases from 10 to 35kg m^-2 with increase canopy-level daily photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) from 34 to 178 mol m^-2 d^^-1. On the contrary dry mass of SLS needed to provide one person with plant food is not dependent on light intensity.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.03.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576508001215
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Prototype BLSS lunar habitat

2008

Phil Sadler,Roberto Furfaro,Gene Giacomelli,Lane Patterson

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

This paper describes a conceptual design for a prototype Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS) based Lunar Habitat. The overall goal of this study is to support a crew of four astronauts continually occupying the Lunar Habitat at the rim of Shackelton's Crater with 6 month re-supply and crew change-out interval. Currently under construction are four prototype Lunar Greenhouse Modules and a fifth prototype Post Harvest Module for recycling crew waste, water, and atmosphere based on this design. The proposed BLSS is highly integrated with the entire habitat and it is shown to dictate the development and design of the proposed lunar habitat prototype.
doi: 10.4271/2008-01-2186 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2008-01-2186/
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Functional architecture and development of the CAB bioregenerative system

2008

C. Lobascio,M. Lamantea,S. Palumberi,V. Cotronei,B. Negri,S. De Pascale,A. Maggio,M. Maffei,M. Foti

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The Bioregenerative Life Support program CAB (Controllo Ambientale Biorigenerativo) is a key element of the Italian Space Agency (ASI) Medicine & Biotechnology scientific program, set forth in the ASI Activity Plan 2006-2008 [01], [02], [03].
The CAB program team performed a one-year feasibility study of a controlled biological life support system (BLSS), allowing the regeneration of resources and the production of food for life support in long duration missions, under the prime contractorship of Thales Alenia Space - Italia, defining: State of art in the field:
Functional and technical requirements for the BLSS Functional architecture and preliminary sizing of a BLSS for planetary surface Development plan with associated scientific activities and technological demonstration.
This paper focuses on the description of functional architecture, preliminary sizing and development of the CAB system, mainly dealing with:
Plant physiology versus space environment; Crop characterization for food production; Plant cultivation technologies - nutrient delivery, illumination, automation and robotics Air regeneration for production of O2, removal of CO2, trace gas monitoring and control; Water regeneration, management and monitoring Waste processing Storage of resources Control of environmental conditions(thermal-hygrometric, pressure, radiation, etc).

doi: 10.4271/2008-01-2012 link: https://www.sae.org/gsdownload/?prodCd=2008-01-2012
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Resource and production model for the South Pole food growth chamber

2008

R. Lane Patterson,Gene A. Giacomelli,Phil D. Sadler

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

NASA scientists have previously researched biomass production units for the purpose of bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS). The University of Arizona, Controlled Environment Agriculture Center (UA-CEAC) in cooperation with Sadler Machine Company (SMC) designed, constructed and assisted real-time operations of the South Pole Food Growth Chamber (SPFGC). The SPFGC is a semi-automated, hydroponic, multiple salad crop production chamber located within the U.S. National Science Foundation New Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. Fresh vegetables are grown for the Station crew during the annual eight-month period of isolation in one of the most extreme and remote environments on Earth. An empirical mathematical model was developed from data monitored onsite and remotely by Internet and telecommunications during the winter of 2006. The SPFGC model was based on a mass balance, whereby all carbon dioxide and water were monitored within the system and biomass generated by the crops was recorded. Edible production yields within the 21.90 m2 SPFGC Plant Production Room averaged 2.8 kg day-1 (± 1.0 kg day-1) with 12 kW of installed high intensity discharge lighting and a 17-hour photoperiod. Other operational resources were monitored including labor, energy, and plant nutrients. The data generated from the remote and isolated location of the SPFGC includes information for future BLSS applications.
doi: 10.4271/2008-01-2011 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2008-01-2011/
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Research and development of operation technology on the waste processing system of the Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities for circulation of carbon in an experimental closed ecosystem comprised of humans, goats and crops

2008

Sho-ichi Tsuga,Yasuhiro Tako,Osamu Komatsubara,Susumu Nozoe,Yuji Nakamura,Kazunori Nishidate,Shuji Fukuda

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Before a series of overall material circulation in an experimental system including crops, animals and humans, technical examinations for the development of a waste processing system were conducted for incorporating the system to the Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF). The examinations are intended to validate the function of the carbonization and incineration processing units which were installed in the CEEF in 2006. Using different mock-up samples, examinations have been carried out to verify the function and capability of the whole system, including the waste carbonization processing unit, incineration processing unit, exhaust gas tank and the exhaust gas processing unit. In an examination using filter paper pulp as a mock-up sample, processing time in each unit was checked. The processing times needed for carbonization and incineration processing were 5.7 and 2.6 hours, respectively. In an examination, using chaff as substitute for inedible plant parts, the carbonization of 400 g of the chaff generated 170-175 g of carbonized substances, and it generated 54-76 g of ash residue in the subsequent incineration process. In the exhaust gas processing unit, satisfactory capability of CO2 separation could not be realized because of the influence of moisture in the exhaust gas. However, several measures to solve these problems were adopted in an experiment in 2007. In the habitation experiments in 2007, wastes discharged from the CEEF were actually processed. The remaining inedible plant parts after using as feed for animals were carbonized in the carbonization processing unit. The urine of the econauts was added to drainage from washing the animal pen; this drainage also contained the excrement and urine of the goats. This combined waste water was dried and carbonized in the carbonization processing unit. The carbonized inedible plant parts, the carbonized human and goat urine and goat excrement, and the carbonized human excrement that was generated by the dry-toilet system, were burned in the incineration processing unit. Gaseous CO2 separated from the exhaust gas of the carbonization and incineration processing units in the exhaust gas processing system was sent to CO2 tanks, and was used for plant cultivation. Moreover, minerals extracted from ash residue produced by incineration were added to nutrient solution for plant cultivation. Equipments for toxic gas elimination of the waste processing system worked efficiently during the closed habitation experiments in 2007. As a result, the maximum concentrations of CO, NO2 and SO2 in the PM were 8.0, N.D. (less than 0.02) and N.D. (less than 0.05) umol mol-1, respectively. And the maximum concentrations of CO, NO2, and SO2 in the AHM were 8.0, 0.06 and N.D. (less than 0.05) umol mol-1, respectively.
doi: 10.4271/2008-01-1979 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2008-01-1979/
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Azolla as a component of the space diet during habitation on Mars

2008

Naomi Katayama,Masamichi Yamashita,Yoshiro Kishida,Chung-Chu Liu,Iwao Watanabe,Hidenori Wada

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

We evaluate a candidate diet and specify its space agricultural requirements for habitation on Mars. Rice, soybean, sweet potato and a green-yellow vegetable have been selected as the basic vegetarian menu. The addition of silkworm pupa, loach, and Azolla to that basic menu was found to meet human nutritional requirements. Co-culture of rice, Azolla, and loach is proposed for developing bio-regenerative life support capability with high efficiency of the usage of habitation and agriculture area. Agriculture designed under the severe constraints of limited materials resources in space would make a positive contribution toward solving the food shortages and environmental problems facing humans on Earth, and may provide an effective sustainable solution for our civilization.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.01.023 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576508000519
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Gas exchange rates of potato stands for bioregenerative life support

2008

Raymond M. Wheeler,Gary W. Stutte,Cheryl L. Mackowiak,Neil C. Yorio,John C. Sager,William M. Knott

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Plants can provide a means for removing carbon dioxide (CO2) while generating oxygen (O2) and clean water for life support systems in space. To study this, 20 m2 stands of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) plants were grown in a large (113 m3 vol.), atmospherically closed chamber. Photosynthetic uptake of CO2 by the stands was detected about 10 DAP (days after planting), after which photosynthetic rates rose rapidly as stand ground cover and total light interception increased. Photosynthetic rates peaked ca. 50 DAP near 45 μmol CO2 m−2 s−1 under 865 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF (average photosynthetic photon flux), and near 35 μmol CO2 m−2 s−1 under 655 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF. Short term changes in PPF caused a linear response in stand photosynthetic rates up to 1100 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF, with a light compensation point of 185 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF. Comparisons of stand photosynthetic rates at different CO2 concentrations showed a classic C3 response, with saturation occurring near 1200 μmol mol−1 CO2 and compensation near 100 μmol mol−1 CO2. In one study, the photoperiod was changed from 12 h light/12 h dark to continuous light at 58 DAP. This caused a decrease in net photosynthetic rates within 48 h and eventual damage (scorching) of upper canopy leaves, suggesting the abrupt change stressed the plants and/or caused feedback effects on photosynthesis. Dark period (night) respiration rates increased during early growth as standing biomass increased and peaked near 9 μmol CO2 m−2 s−1 ca. 50 DAP, after which rates declined gradually with age. Stand transpiration showed a rapid rise with canopy ground cover and peaked ca. 50 DAP near 8.9 L m−2 d−1 under 860 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF and near 6.3 L m−2 d−1 under 650 μmol m−2 s−1 PPF. Based on the best photosynthetic rates from these studies, approximately 25 m2 of potato plants under continuous cultivation would be required to support the CO2 removal and O2 requirements for one person.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.07.027 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707008022
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Xylem development and cell wall changes of soybean seedlings grown in space

2008

Veronica de Micco,Giovanna Aronne,Jean-Paul Joseleau,Katia Ruel

publication: Annals of botany

Abstract

Plants growing in altered gravity conditions encounter changes in vascular development and cell wall deposition. The aim of this study was to investigate xylem anatomy and arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in vessel walls of different organs of soybean seedlings grown in Space.
doi: 10.1093/aob/mcn001 pubmed: 18252765 link: https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-abstract/101/5/661/160760
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An introduction to light-emitting diodes

2008

Hakjun Lee,Seung-Won Song,Kyo Min Hwang,Ki Ju Kim,Heesun Yang,Young Kwan Kim,Taekyung Kim

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A historical background of plant lighting

2008

Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Electric lamps have been used to grow plants for nearly 150 years with some of the earliest references being the work of Mangon (1861) and Prilleux (1869) (cited in Pfeiffer, 1926). As might be imagined, plant lighting technologies closely followed those used for human lighting, which took three general paths of development (Murdoch, 1985; Withrow and Withrow, 1947): 1) incandescent lighting, which was refined by Edison's invention of the incandescent filament lamp in 1879; 2) open arc lighting, which typically used carbon rods and became popular for street lighting in some cities in the late 1800s; and 3) enclosed gaseous discharge lamps, which were initially developed with mercury vapor in the late 1800s (Murdoch, 1985).
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.43.7.1942 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/43/7/article-p1942.xml
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The design and optimization for light-algae bioreactor controller based on artificial neural network-model predictive control

2008

Dawei Hu,Hong Liu,Chenliang Yang,Enzhu Hu

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

As a subsystem of the bioregenerative life support system (BLSS), light-algae bioreactor (LABR) has properties of high reaction rate, efficiently synthesizing microalgal biomass, absorbing CO₂ and releasing O₂ , so it is significant for BLSS to provide food and maintain gas balance. In order to manipulate the LABR properly, it has been designed as a closed-loop control system, and technology of Artificial Neural Network–Model Predictive Control (ANN-MPC) is applied to design the controller for LABR in which green microalgae, Spirulina platensis is cultivated continuously. The conclusion is drawn by computer simulation that ANN-MPC controller can intelligently learn the complicated dynamic performances of LABR, and automatically, robustly and self-adaptively regulate the light intensity illuminating on the LABR, hence make the growth of microalgae in the LABR be changed in line with the references, meanwhile provide appropriate damping to improve markedly the transient response performance of LABR.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.02.008 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576508000799
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Space agriculture for habitation on Mars with hyper-thermophilic aerobic composting bacteria

2008

S. Kanazawa,Y. Ishikawa,K. Tomita-Yokotani,H. Hashimoto,Y. Kitaya,M. Yamashita,M. Nagatomo,T. Oshima,H. Wada

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Manned Mars exploration, especially for extended periods of time, will require recycle of materials to support human life. Here, a conceptual design is developed for a Martian agricultural system driven by biologically regenerative functions. One of the core biotechnologies function is the use of hyper-thermophilic aerobic composting bacterial ecology. These thermophilic bacteria can play an important role in increasing the effectiveness of the processing of human metabolic waste and inedible biomass and of converting them to fertilizer for the cultivation of plants. This microbial technology has been already well established for the purpose of processing sewage and waste materials for small local communities in Japan. One of the characteristics of the technology is that the metabolic heat release that occurs during bacterial fermentation raises the processing temperature sufficiently high at 80–100 °C to support hyper-thermophilic bacteria. Such a hyper-thermophilic system is found to have great capability of decomposing wastes including even their normally recalcitrant components, in a reasonably short period of time and of providing a better quality of fertilizer as an end-product. High quality compost has been shown to be a key element in creating a healthy regenerative food production system. In ground-based studies, the soil microbial ecology after the addition of high quality compost was shown to improve plant growth and promote a healthy symbiosis of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Another advantage of such high processing temperature is the ability to sterilize the pathogenic organisms through the fermentation process and thus to secure the hygienic safety of the system. Plant cultivation is one of the other major systems. It should fully utilize solar energy received on the Martian surface for supplying energy for photosynthesis. Subsurface water and atmospheric carbon dioxide mined on Mars should be also used in the plant cultivation system. Oxygen and food production for human thus rely on local Martian resources. A tree growing subsystem will also give an interesting feature to Martian agriculture. In addition to producing excess oxygen, trees’ rigid body will provide structural material, which can be used for habitat construction. The combination of hyper-thermophilic aerobic composting, plant cultivation, and tree growing with utilizing in-situ natural local resources available on Mars can provide important elements which can enable space agriculture on Mars.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.09.040 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707009933
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Technology and developments for the random positioning machine, RPM

2008

A. G. Borst,Jack J. W. A. van Loon

publication: Microgravity science and technology

Abstract

A Random Positioning Machine (RPM) is a laboratory instrument to provide continuous random change in orientation relative to the gravity vector of an accommodated (biological) experiment. The use of the RPM can generate effects comparable to the effects of true microgravity when the changes in direction are faster than the object’s response time to gravity. Thus, relatively responsive living objects, like plants but also other systems, are excellent candidates to be studied on RPMs. In this paper the working principle, technology and control modes will be explained and an overview of the previously used and available experiment systems will be presented. Current and future developments like a microscope facility or fluid handling systems on the RPM and the option to provide partial gravity control modes simulating for instance Mars or Moon gravity will be discussed.
doi: 10.1007/s12217-008-9043-2 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12217-008-9043-2
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Creation of closed ecological life support systems: Results, critical problems and potentials

2008

I.I. Gitelson, G.M. Lisovsky

publication: Journal of the Siberian Federal University

Abstract

As experiments have shown, a closed ecological life support system based on a biological material exchange is fully realizable and contains possibilities for further improvement. This kind of closed human ecosystem can become a mode! not only of an earthly noosphere, but also of daughter noospheres that can be used to help humanity render space inhabitable without threatening other bodies of the solar system through the intrusion of earthly substances and biological autocatalytic processes. As such, it will allow humans to exist in space or on other solar bodies, while requiring only the input of energy and not allowing the release of metabolites into the surroundings. Partially closed technologies for regenerating the atmosphere, water, and vegetable nutrients can radically enhance the quality of life in extreme regions—in the Arctic, Antarctica, in deserts, and in high mountain settlements. Another aspect of closed life support technologies is that they enable the minimizing of the environmental pollution that results from human waste products and those of their domestic animals. That these technologies can find applications on Earth before human settlements appear on Mars or the Moon. The transition to essentially closed nonpolluting, non-deadlock life support technologies will be a noticeable step on the path toward the sustainable development of the noosphere.
link: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/fatty-acids-of-sestonic-lipid-classes-as-a-tool-to-study-nutrit...
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Crop Candidates for the Bioregenerative Life Support Systems in China

2008

Xu Chunxiao,Liu Hong

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

The use of plants for life support applications in space is appealing because of the multiple life support functions by the plants. Research on crops that were grown in the life support system to provide food and oxygen, remove carbon dioxide was begun from 1960. To select possible crops for research on the bioregenerative life support systems in China, criteria for the selection of potential crops were made, and selection of crops was carried out based on these criteria. The results showed that 14 crops including 4 food crops (wheat, rice, soybean and peanut) and 7 vegetables (Chinese cabbage, lettuce, radish, carrot, tomato, squash and pepper) won higher scores. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), soybean (Glycine max L.) and peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) are main food crops in China. Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis var. communis), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. longifolia Lam.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.), carrot (Daucus carota L. var. sativa DC.), tomato (Lycopersicon escalentum L.), squash (Cucurbita moschata Duch.) and pepper (Capsicum frutescens L. var. longum Bailey) are 7 vegetables preferred by Chinese. Furthermore, coriander (Coriandum sativum L.), welsh onion (Allium fistulosum L. var. giganteum Makino) and garlic (Allium sativum L.) were selected as condiments to improve the taste of space crew. To each crop species, several cultivars were selected for further research according to their agronomic characteristics.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.02.003 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576508000593
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Cowpeas and pinto beans: Performance and yield of candidate space crops in the laboratory biosphere closed ecological system

2008

M. Nelson,W.F. Dempster,J.P. Allen,S. Silverstone,A. Alling,M. van Thillo

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

An experiment utilizing cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L.), pinto beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and Apogee ultra-dwarf wheat (Triticum sativa L.) was conducted in the soil-based closed ecological facility, Laboratory Biosphere, from February to May 2005. The lighting regime was 13 h light/11 h dark at a light intensity of 960 μmol m−2 s−1, 45 mol m−2 day−1 supplied by high-pressure sodium lamps. The pinto beans and cowpeas were grown at two different planting densities. Pinto bean production was 341.5 g dry seed m−2 (5.42 g m−2 day−1) and 579.5 dry seed m−2 (9.20 g m−2 day−1) at planted densities of 32.5 plants m−2 and 37.5 plants m−2, respectively. Cowpea yielded 187.9 g dry seed m−2 (2.21 g m−2 day−1) and 348.8 dry seed m−2 (4.10 g m−2 day−1) at planted densities of 20.8 plants m−2 and 27.7 plants m−2, respectively. The crop was grown at elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, with levels ranging from 300–3000 ppm daily during the majority of the crop cycle. During early stages (first 10 days) of the crop, CO2 was allowed to rise to 7860 ppm while soil respiration dominated, and then was brought down by plant photosynthesis. CO2 was injected 27 times during days 29–71 to replenish CO2 used by the crop during photosynthesis. Temperature regime was 24–28 °C day/deg 20–24 °C night. Pinto bean matured and was harvested 20 days earlier than is typical for this variety, while the cowpea, which had trouble establishing, took 25 days more for harvest than typical for this variety. Productivity and atmospheric dynamic results of these studies contribute toward the design of an envisioned ground-based test bed prototype Mars base.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.03.001 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707002141
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Influence of microgravity environment on root growth, soluble sugars, and starch concentration of sweetpotato stem cuttings

2008

Desmond G. Mortley,Conrad K. Bonsi,Walter A. Hill,Carlton E. Morris,Carol S. Williams,Ceyla F. Davis,John W. Williams,Lanfang H. Levine,Barbara V. Petersen,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Because sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] stem cuttings regenerate very easily and quickly, a study of their early growth and development in microgravity could be useful to an understanding of morphological changes that might occur under such conditions for crops that are propagated vegetatively. An experiment was conducted aboard a U.S. Space Shuttle to investigate the impact of microgravity on root growth, distribution of amyloplasts in the root cells, and on the concentration of soluble sugars and starch in the stems of sweetpotatoes. Twelve stem cuttings of 'Whatley/Loretan' sweetpotato (5 cm long) with three to four nodes were grown in each of two plant growth units filled with a nutrient agarose medium impregnated with a half-strength Hoagland solution. One plant growth unit was flown on Space Shuttle Colombia for 5 days, whereas the other remained on the ground as a control. The cuttings were received within 2 h postflight and, along with ground controls, processed in approximately 45 min. Adventitious roots were counted, measured, and fixed for electron microscopy and stems frozen for starch and sugar assays. Air samples were collected from the headspace of each plant growth unit for postflight determination of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and ethylene levels. All stem cuttings produced adventitious roots and growth was quite vigorous in both ground-based and flight samples and, except for a slight browning of some root tips in the flight samples, all stem cuttings appeared normal. The roots on the flight cuttings tended to grow in random directions. Also, stem cuttings grown in microgravity had more roots and greater total root length than ground-based controls. Amyloplasts in root cap cells of ground-based controls were evenly sedimented toward one end compared with a more random distribution in the flight samples. The concentration of soluble sugars, glucose, fructose, and sucrose and total starch concentration were all substantially greater in the stems of flight samples than those found in the ground-based samples. Carbon dioxide levels were 50% greater and oxygen marginally lower in the flight plants, whereas ethylene levels were similar and averaged less than 10 nL.L (-1). Despite the greater accumulation of carbohydrates in the stems, and greater root growth in the flight cuttings, overall results showed minimal differences in cell development between space flight and ground-based tissues. This suggests that the space flight environment did not adversely impact sweetpotato metabolism and that vegetative cuttings should be an acceptable approach for propagating sweetpotato plants for space applications.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.133.3.327 pubmed: 20186286 link: https://journals.ashs.org/jashs/view/journals/jashs/133/3/article-p327.xml
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Red light affects flowering under long days in a short-day strawberry cultivar

2008

Fumiomi Takeda,D. Michael Glenn,Gary W. Stutte

publication: HortScience

Abstract

July-plugged transplants of short-day cv. Strawberry Festival (Fragaria ×ananassa) flowered in October and November although they were grown under long photoperiods and warm temperatures (greater than 21 °C) in July and August. These unexpected results were attributed to a high plant density (320 transplants/m2) that provided continuous and heavy leaf cover, which eliminated red light (less than 700 nm) from reaching the crowns. This hypothesis was tested by illuminating crowns of transplants growing in 50-cell packs for 16 h·d−1 with red light-emitting diode lamps (maximum wavelength at 639 nm and 80% of output between 617 and 655 nm). Red light treatment caused a significant reduction in fall flowering. It is proposed that a high ratio of far-red light to visible light reaching the crown will play a role in floral bud induction, possibly as early as mid-August. Transplants of some short-day cultivars started as plug plants in early July have the capacity to flower and fruit in the fall and the next spring, enabling growers in the mid-Atlantic coast region to obtain two harvests within 1 year from a single planting.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.43.7.2245 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/43/7/article-p2245.xml
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Selection of candidate vegetables for controlled ecological life support system

2008

L. Qin,S. Guo,W. Ai,Y. Tang

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Higher plants, as one of the essential biological components of CELSS, can supply food, oxygen and water for human crews during future long-duration space missions and Lunar/Mars habitats. In order to select suitable leaf vegetable varieties for our CELSS Experimental Facility (CEF), five varieties of lettuce (“Nenlvnaiyou”, “Dasusheng”, “Naichoutai”, “Dongfangkaixuan” and “Siji”), two of spinach (“Daye” and “Quanneng”), one of rape (“Jingyou No. 1”) and one of common sowthistle were grown and compared on the basis of edible biomass, and nutrient content. In addition, two series of experiments were conducted to study single leaf photosynthetic rates and transpiration rates at 30 days after planting, one which used various concentrations of CO2 (500, 1000, 1500 and 2000 μmol mol−1) and another which used various light intensities (100, 300, 500 and 700 μmol m−2 s−1). Results showed that lettuce cvs. “Nenlvnaiyou”, “Siji” and “Dasusheng” produced higher yields of edible biomass; common sowthisle would be a good source of β-carotene for the diet. Based on the collective findings, we selected three varieties of lettuce (“Nenlvnaiyou”, “Dasusheng” and “Siji”) and one of common sowthistle as the candidate crops for further research in our CEF. In addition, elevated CO2 concentration increased the rates of photosynthesis and transpiration, and elevated light intensity increased the rate of photosynthesis for these varieties. These results can be useful for determining optimal conditions for controlling CO2 and water fluxes between the crops and the overall CELSS.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.09.037 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707009726
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A conceptual configuration of the lunar base bioregeneraive life suppot system including soil-like substrate for growing plants

2008

H. Liu, C.Y. Yu, N.S. Manukovsky, V.S. Kovalev, Yu L. Gurevich, J. Wang

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The paper presents a conceptual configuration of the lunar base bioregenerative life support system (LBLSS), including soil-like substrate (SLS) for growing plants. SLS makes it possible to combine the processes of plant growth and the utilization of plant waste. Plants are to be grown on SLS on the basis of 20 kg of dry SLS mass or 100 kg of wet SLS mass per square meter. The substrate is to be delivered to the base ready-made as part of the plant growth subsystem. Food for the crew was provided by prestored stock 24% and by plant growing system 76%. Total dry weight of the food is 631 g per day (2800 kcal/day) for one crew member (CM). The list of candidate plants to be grown under lunar BLSS conditions included 14 species: wheat, rice, soybean, peanuts, sweet pepper, carrots, tomatoes, coriander, cole, lettuce, radish, squash, onion and garlic. From the prestored stock the crew consumed canned fish, iodinated salt, sugar, beef sauce and seafood sauce. Our calculations show that to provide one CM with plant food requires the area of 47.5 m2. The balance of substance is achieved by the removal dehydrated urine 59 g, feces 31 g, food waste 50 g, SLS 134 g, and also waters 86 g from system and introduction food 236 g, liquid potassium soap 4 g and mineral salts 120 g into system daily. To reduce system setup time the first plants could be sowed and germinated to a certain age on the Earth.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2008.03.020 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117708001701
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Plant productivity in response to LED lighting

2008

Gioia D. Massa,Hyeon-Hye Kim,Raymond M. Wheeler,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have tremendous potential as supplemental or sole-source lighting systems for crop production both on and off earth. Their small size, durability, long operating lifetime, wavelength specificity, relatively cool emitting surfaces, and linear photon output with electrical input current make these solid-state light sources ideal for use in plant lighting designs. Because the output waveband of LEDs (single color, nonphosphor-coated) is much narrower than that of traditional sources of electric lighting used for plant growth, one challenge in designing an optimum plant lighting system is to determine wavelengths essential for specific crops. Work at NASA's Kennedy Space Center has focused on the proportion of blue light required for normal plant growth as well as the optimum wavelength of red and the red/far-red ratio. The addition of green wavelengths for improved plant growth as well as for visual monitoring of plant status has been addressed. Like with other light sources, spectral quality of LEDs can have dramatic effects on crop anatomy and morphology as well as nutrient uptake and pathogen development. Work at Purdue University has focused on geometry of light delivery to improve energy use efficiency of a crop lighting system. Additionally, foliar intumescence developing in the absence of ultraviolet light or other less understood stimuli could become a serious limitation for some crops lighted solely by narrow-band LEDs. Ways to prevent this condition are being investigated. Potential LED benefits to the controlled environment agriculture industry are numerous and more work needs to be done to position horticulture at the forefront of this promising technology.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.43.7.1951 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/43/7/article-p1951.xml
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One-week habitation of two humans in an airtight facility with two goats and 23 crops - Analysis of carbon, oxygen, and water circulation

2008

Y. Tako,S. Tsuga,T. Tani,R. Arai,O. Komatsubara,M. Shinohara

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Human habitation and animal holding experiments in a closed environment, the Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF), were carried out. The CEEF were established for collecting experimental data to estimate carbon transfer in the ecosystem around Rokkasho nuclear fuel reprocessing plant. Circulation of O2 and CO2, and supply of food from crops cultivated in the CEEF were conducted for the first time in the habitation experiments. Two humans known as eco-nauts inhabited the CEEF, living and working in the Plant Module (PM) and the Animal and Habitation Module (AHM), for a week three times in 2005. On a fresh weight basis, 82% of their food was supplied from 23 crops including rice and soybean, cultivated and harvested in the PM, in the 2nd and 3rd experiments. For the goats, the animals held in the experiments, all of their feed, consisting of rice straw, soybean plant leaves, and peanut shells and peanut plant leaves, was produced in the PM in the 2nd and 3rd experiments. The O2 produced in the PM by photosynthesis of the crops was separated by the O2 separator using molecular sheaves, then accumulated, transferred, and supplied to the AHM atmosphere. The CO2 produced in the AHM by respiration of the humans and animals was separated by the CO2 separator using solid amine, then accumulated, transferred, and supplied to the PM atmosphere. The amount of O2 consumed in the AHM was 46–51% of that produced in the PM, and the amount of CO2 produced in the AHM was 43–56% of that consumed in the PM. The surplus of O2 and the shortage of CO2 was a result of the fact that waste of the goats and the crops and part of the human waste were not processed in these habitation experiments. The estimated amount of carbon ingested by the eco-nauts was 64–92% of that in the harvested edible part of the crops. The estimated amount of carbon ingested by the goats was 36–53% of that in the harvested inedible part of the crops. One week was not enough time for determination of gas exchange especially for humans and animals, because fluctuation of their gas exchange was quite high. The amount of transpired water collected as condensate was 818–938 L d−1, and it was recycled as replenishing water compensating transpiration loss of nutrient solution. The amount of waste nutrient solution discharged from the PM was 1421–1644 L d−1. The waste nutrient solutions from rice and other crops were processed through micro filters (MFs) separately. The MF filtrated solutions were processed with reverse osmosis (RO) membrane filter separately and divided into filtrated water and concentrated waste nutrient solution. The concentrated waste nutrient solution from the crops other than rice was processed through an ultra-micro filter (UF) and reused, although that from rice was discharged in 2005. Concentrations of nutritional ions in the UF filtrated solution were determined, the depleted ions were added back, the UF filtrated solution was diluted with the RO membrane filtrated water, and the nutrient solution for the crops other than rice was regenerated. The nutrient solution for rice was newly made each time, using concentrated solution from an external source and the RO membrane filtrated water. Average amounts of water used in the AHM (L d−1) were determined as follows: drinking by humans (filtrated water), 1.5; cooking, etc. (filtrated water other than for drinking), 14.3; drinking by goats, 3.8; showering (hot water), 13.2; showering (cold water), 0.1; washing of hand and face and brushing teeth, 4.1; washing of dishes, dish clothes and towels, 36.4; and washing of animal holding tools, 0.3. The waste water was processed by a RO purification system and recycled for toilet flushing and animal pens washing. A circulation experiment for water was started in 2006 and a circulation experiment for waste materials is planned for 2007. In 2006, a single duration of the air circulation experiments was 2 weeks, although the human habitants were changed after 1 week.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.09.023 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311770700960X
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Development of an improved ground-based prototyped of space plant-growing facility

2008

S. Guo, X. Liu, W. Ai, Y. Tang, J. Zhu, X. Wang, M. Wei, L. Qin, Y. Yang

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Based on a formerly developed ground-based prototype of space plant-growing facility, the development of its improved prototype has been finished, so as to make its operating principle better adapt to the space microgravity environment. According to the developing experience of its first generation prototype and detailed demonstration and design of technique plan, its blueprint design and machining of related components, whole facility installment, debugging and trial operations were all done gradually. Its growing chamber contains a volume of about 0.5 m3 and a growing area of approximate 0.5 m2; the atmospheric environmental parameters in the growing chamber and water content in the growing media were controlled totally and effectively; lighting source is a combination of both red and blue light emitting diodes (LED). The following demonstrating results showed that the entire system design of the prototype is reasonable and its operating principle can nearly meet the requirements of space microgravity environment. Therefore, our plant-growing technique in space was advanced further, which laid an important foundation for next development of the space plant-growing facility and plant-cultivating experimental research in space microgravity condition.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.09.013 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707009544
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Use of sunlight for plant lighting in a bioregenerative life support system--Equivalent system mass calculations

2008

Alan Drysdale,Takashi Nakamura,Neil Yorio,John Sager,Ray Wheeler

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Plant lighting is a critical issue for cost effectiveness of bioregenerative systems. A plant lighting system using sunlight has been investigated and compared to systems using electrical lighting. Co-generation of electricity and use of in situ resource utilization (ISRU) were also considered. The fixed part of equivalent system mass was found to be reduced by factors of from 3.1 to 3.9, according to the mission assumptions. The time-dependent part of equivalent system mass was reduced by a smaller value, of about 1.05. Cost effectiveness of bioregeneration has been compared to the cost of shipping food. Break-even times for different Lunar and Mars missions were generally in the order of 2–10 years, and were quite sensitive to the assumptions. There is significant scope for future refinement of these values, and work is ongoing.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2008.09.020 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117708005176
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Growth of sweetpotato cultures in the newly designed hydroponic system for space farming

2008

Y. Kitaya, H. Hirai, X. Wei, A.F.M.S. Islam, M. Yamamoto

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Life support of crews in long-duration space missions for other planets will be highly dependent on amounts of food, atmospheric O2 and clean water produced by plants. Therefore, the space farming system with scheduling of crop production, obtaining high yields with a rapid turnover rate, converting atmospheric CO2 to O2 and purifying water should be established with employing suitable plant species and cultivars and precisely controlling environmental variables around plants grown at a high density in a limited space. In this study, we developed a new hydroponic method for producing tuberous roots and fresh edible leaves and stems of sweetpotato. In the first experiment, we examined the effects of water contents in the rooting substrate on growth and tuberous root development of sweetpotato. The rooting substrates made with rockwool slabs were inclined in a culture container and absorbed nutrient solution from the lower end of the slabs by capillary action. Tuberous roots developed on the lower surface of the rockwool slabs. The tuberous roots showed better growth and development at locations farther from the water surface on the rockwool slabs, which had lower water content. In the second experiment, three sweetpotato cultivars were cultured in a hydroponic system for five months from June to November under the sun light in Osaka, Japan as a fundamental study for establishing the space farming system. The cultivars employed were ‘Elegant summer’, ‘Kokei-14’ and ‘Beniazuma’. The hydroponic system mainly consisted of culture containers and rockwool slabs. Dry weights of tuberous roots developed in the aerial space between the rockwool slab and the nutrient solution filled at the bottom of the culture container were 0.34, 0.45 and 0.23 kg/plant and dry weights of the top portion (leaves, petioles and stems) were 0.42, 0.29 and 0.61 kg/plant for ‘Elegant summer’, ‘Kokei-14’ and ‘Beniazuma’, respectively. Young stems and leaves as well as tuberous roots of ‘Elegant summer’ are edible and palatable. Therefore ‘Elegant summer’ would be a promising crop to produce large amounts of food with high nutritional values in the present hydroponic system in space farming.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2007.09.005 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117707009532
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Ethylene reduces gas exchange and growth of lettuce plants under hypobaric and normal atmospheric conditions

2009

Chuanjiu He,Fred T. Davies,Ronald E. Lacey

publication: Physiologia plantarum

Abstract

Elevated levels of ethylene occur in controlled environment agriculture and in spaceflight environments, leading to adverse plant growth and sterility. The objectives of this research were to characterize the influence of ethylene on carbon dioxide (CO(2)) assimilation (C(A)), dark period respiration (DPR) and growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Buttercrunch) under ambient and low total pressure conditions. Lettuce plants were grown under variable total gas pressures of 25 kPa (hypobaric) and 101 kPa (ambient) pressure. Endogenously produced ethylene accumulated and reduced C(A), DPR and plant growth of ambient and hypobaric plants. There was a negative linear correlation between increasing ethylene concentrations [from 0 to around 1000 nmol mol(-1) (ppb)] on C(A), DPR and growth of ambient and hypobaric plants. Declines in C(A) and DPR occurred with both exogenous and endogenous ethylene treatments. C(A) was more sensitive to increasing ethylene concentration than DPR. There was a direct, negative effect of increasing ethylene concentration reducing gas exchange as well as an indirect ethylene effect on leaf epinasty, which reduced light capture and C(A). While the C(A) was comparable, there was a lower DPR in hypobaric than ambient pressure plants - independent of ethylene and under non-limiting CO(2) levels (100 Pa pCO(2), nearly three-fold that in normal air). This research shows that lettuce can be grown under hypobaria ( congruent with25% of normal earth ambient total pressure); however, hypobaria caused no significant reduction of endogenous ethylene production.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2008.01190.x pubmed: 19175518 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2008.01190.x
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Silkworms culture as a source of protein for humans in space

2009

Yunan Yang,Liman Tang,Ling Tong,Hong Liu

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

This paper focuses on the problem about a configuration with complete nutrition for humans in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) applied in the spacebases. The possibility of feeding silkworms to provide edible animal protein with high quality for taikonauts during long-term spaceflights and lunar-based missions was investigated from several aspects, including the nutrition structure of silkworms, feeding method, processing methods, feeding equipment, growing conditions and the influences on the space environmental condition changes caused by the silkworms. The originally inedible silk is also regarded as a protein source. A possible process of edible silk protein was brought forward in this paper. After being processed, the silk can be converted to edible protein for humans. The conclusion provides a promising approach to solving the protein supply problem for the taikonauts living in space during an extended exploration period.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2008.12.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117708006753
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Hypobaria, hypoxia and light affect gas exchange, and the CO2 compensation and saturation points of lettuce (Lactuca sativa)

2009

C.-J. He, F.T. Davies, R.E. Lacey

publication: Botany

Abstract

There are important engineering and crop production advantages in growing plants under hypobaric (reduced atmospheric pressure) conditions for extraterrestrial base or spaceflight environments. The objectives of this research were to determine the influence of hypobaria and reduced partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) (hypoxia) under low and high light irradiance on carbon dioxide (CO2) assimilation (CA), dark-period respiration (DPR), and the CO2 compensation and CO2 saturation points of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. ‘Buttercrunch’). Plants were grown under variable total gas pressures [25 and 101 kPa (ambient)] at 6, 12, or 21 kPa pO2 (approximately the partial pressure in air at normal pressure). Light irradiance at canopy level of the low-pressure plant growth system (LPPG) was at 240 (low) or 600 (high) µmol·m–2·s–1. While hypobaria (25 kPa) had no effect on CA or the CO2 compensation point, it reduced the DPR and the CO2 saturation point, and increased the CA / DPR ratio. Hypoxia (6 kPa pO2) and low light reduced CA, DPR, and the CA / DPR ratio. Hypoxia decreased the CO2 compensation point regardless of total pressure. Hypoxia also decreased the the CO2 saturation point of ambient-pressure plants, but had no effect on hypobaric plants. While low light reduced the CO2 saturation point, it increased the CO2 compensation point, compared with high-light plants. The results show that hypobaric conditions of 25 kPa do not adversely affect gas exchange compared with ambient-pressure plants, and may be advantageous during hypoxic stress.
doi: 10.1139/B09-031 link: https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/b09-031
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Super-elevated CO2 interferes with stomatal response to ABA and night closure in soybean (Glycine max

2009

Lanfang H. Levine,Jeffrey T. Richards,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

Studies have shown stomatal conductance (g(s)) of plants exposed to super-elevated CO2 (>5000micromol mol(-1)) increases in several species, in contrast to a decrease of g(s) caused by moderate CO2 enrichment. We conducted a series of experiments to determine whether super-elevated CO2 alters stomatal development and/or interferes with stomatal closure in soybean (Glycine max). Plants were grown at nominal ambient (400), elevated (1200) and super-elevated (10,000micromol mol(-1)) CO2 in controlled environmental chambers. Stomatal density of the plant leaf was examined by a scanning electron microscope (SEM), while the stomatal response to the application of exogenous abscisic acid (ABA), a phytohormone associated with water stress and stomatal control, was investigated in intact growing plants by measuring the g(s) of abaxial leaf surfaces using a steady-state porometer. Relative to the control (400micromol mol(-1) CO2) plants, daytime stomatal conductance (g(s,day)) of the plants grown under 1200 and 10,000micromol mol(-1) CO2 was reduced by 38% and 15%, respectively. Dark period stomatal conductance (g(s,night)) was unaffected by growing under 1200mumol mol(-1) CO2) but dramatically increased under 10,000micromol mol(-1) CO2. Stomatal density increased by 10% in the leaves of 10,000micromol mol(-1) CO2-grown plants, which in part contributed to the higher g(s,night) values. Elevating [CO2] to 1200micromol mol(-1) enhanced ABA-induced stomatal closure, but further increasing CO2 to 10,000micromol mol(-1) significantly reduced ABA-induced stomatal closure. These results demonstrated that stomatal response to ABA is CO2 dependent. Hence, a stomatal failure to effectively respond to an ABA signal and to close at night under extremely high CO2 may increase plants susceptibility to other abiotic stresses.
doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2008.11.006 pubmed: 19131142 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161708003428
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Developing strategies for automated remote plant production systems: Environmental control and monitoring of the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse in the Canadian High Arctic

2009

M. Bamsey,A. Berinstain,T. Graham,P. Neron,R. Giroux,S. Braham,R. Ferl,A.-L. Paul,M. Dixon

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse is a unique research facility dedicated to the study of greenhouse engineering and autonomous functionality under extreme operational conditions, in preparation for extraterrestrial biologically-based life support systems. The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse is located at the Haughton Mars Project Research Station on Devon Island in the Canadian High Arctic. The greenhouse has been operational since 2002. Over recent years the greenhouse has served as a controlled environment facility for conducting scientific and operationally relevant plant growth investigations in an extreme environment. Since 2005 the greenhouse has seen the deployment of a refined nutrient control system, an improved imaging system capable of remote assessment of basic plant health parameters, more robust communication and power systems as well as the implementation of a distributed data acquisition system. Though several other Arctic greenhouses exist, the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse is distinct in that the focus is on autonomous operation as opposed to strictly plant production. Remote control and autonomous operational experience has applications both terrestrially in production greenhouses and extraterrestrially where future long duration Moon/Mars missions will utilize biological life support systems to close the air, food and water loops. Minimizing crew time is an important goal for any space-based system. The experience gained through the remote operation of the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse is providing the experience necessary to optimize future plant production systems and minimize crew time requirements. Internal greenhouse environmental data shows that the fall growth season (July–September) provides an average photosynthetic photon flux of 161.09 μmol m−2 s−1 (August) and 76.76 μmol m−2 s−1 (September) with approximately a 24 h photoperiod. The spring growth season provides an average of 327.51 μmol m−2 s−1 (May) and 339.32 μmol m−2 s−1 (June) demonstrating that even at high latitudes adequate light is available for crop growth during 4–5 months of the year. The Canadian Space Agency Development Greenhouse [now operational] serves as a test-bed for evaluating new systems prior to deployment in the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse. This greenhouse is also used as a venue for public outreach relating to biological life support research and its corresponding terrestrial spin-offs.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2009.08.012 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311770900547X
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Isolation and analysis of resistance gene homologues in sweetpotato

2009

Y. Wang,B. Rosen,J. Scoffield,M. Egnin,D. Mortley,S. Steiner,D. R. Cook,G. He

publication: Plant Breeding

Abstract

The majority of functionally characterized plant disease resistance genes are of the nucleotide-binding site (NBS)-LRR gene family, encoding proteins with a central NBS domain, a carboxy-terminal leucine-rich repeat domain, and a variable N-terminal region with or without homology to the Toll interleukin 1-like receptor (TIR) domain, referred to as TIR and non-TIR resistance gene homologues (RGH), respectively. Degenerate primers designed from conserved motifs within the NBS sequence were used to amplify, clone and sequence NBS-RGH from the sweetpotato genome. Two hundred and twenty-five distinct sweetpotato NBS sequences with similarity to known RGH genes were identified. Additional 50 sweetpotato RGHs were mined from the public genomic sequence database. Thus, a total of 275 RGH sequences were obtained using both PCR-based method and data-mining approach, from which 237 were non-TIR sequences organized into 35 singletons and 35 groups after reduced to 90% nucleotide identity, and 38 were TIR sequences divided into three primary phylogenetic clades. A bias of non-TIR vs. TIR was observed not only in genomic RGH sequences, but also in expressed sequence tags-RGH sequences. A subset of sweetpotato non-TIR RGH genes contained a conserved intron within the NBS sequences. The exploration of RGH diversity enables resistance gene evolutionary study and may facilitate the isolation of new and functional alleles. These new RGH sequences provided a resource of candidate genes and molecular markers for disease resistance research in sweetpotato.
doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0523.2009.01711.x link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0523.2009.01711.x
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Hypobaria and hypoxia affects growth and phytochemical contents of lettuce

2009

Nihal C. Rajapakse,Chuanjiu He,Luis Cisneros-Zevallos,Fred T. Davies

publication: Scientia Horticulturae

Abstract

The primary objective of this research was to investigate how low pressure (hypobaria) and low oxygen (hypoxia) affect functional phytochemicals and the nutritional quality of ‘Red Sails’ lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Plants were grown under two levels of total gas pressure (reduced or ambient (25 or 101 kPa, respectively)) at three levels of O2 partial pressures (low, medium or ambient (6, 12 or 21 kPa, respectively)). Hypoxia effects on nutritional and functional phytochemicals were more pronounced than hypobaria effects. Regardless of the total pressure, hypoxia, in general, enhanced leaf anthocyanin levels, enhanced total phenolic compounds, enhanced carbohydrate concentration and enhanced free radical scavenging capacity of lettuce but reduced leaf mineral concentration. Hypoxia increased the ethylene production of plants but ethylene accumulation was not the sole reason for enhanced anthocyanin production in plants grown under hypoxia. Our results suggest that low oxygen stress induces the production of protective phytochemicals and the free radical scavenging potential in lettuce, which may in turn enhance the functional value. However, further human intervention studies are needed to confirm if enhanced phytochemicals in plants have significant impact in human body.
doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2009.05.002 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304423809002490
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Plants as countermeasures: A review of the literature and application to habitation systems for humans living in isolated or extreme environments

2009

S. Bates, V. Gushin, G. Bingham, A. Vinokhodova, J. Marquit, V. Sytchev

publication: Habitation

Abstract

Humans rely on plants for their survival in a multitude of ways. Plants provide nutritive value to organisms throughout the food chain and support a life-sustaining atmosphere. The idea that plants provide non-nutritive value is less established. In this paper, we will outline a variety of ways in which plants have been shown to have positive (nonnutritive) impacts on humans such that the potential application of plants as a countermeasure for difficulties experienced by humans living in isolated or extreme environments is established and evaluated. A literature review on the topic of the non-nutritive benefits of plants is drawn from a wide variety of disciplines; a framework is offered to organize and provide structure for addressing the potential of plants to serve as effective countermeasures in isolated/extreme environments.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/habit/2009/00000012/00000001/art00005
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Vegetable production facility as a part of a closed life support system in a Russian Martian space flight scenario

2009

Yu.A. Berkovich,S.O. Smolyanina,N.M. Krivobok,A.N. Erokhin,A.N. Agureev,N.A. Shanturin

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

A Manned Mars Mission scenario had been developed in frame of the Project 1172 supported International Science & Technology Center in Moscow. The Mars transit vehicle (MTV) supposed to have a crew of 4–6 with Pilot Laboratory compartment volume of 185 m3 and with inner diameter of 4.1 m. A vegetable production facility with power consumption up to 10 kW is being considered as a component of the life support system to supply crew members by fresh vegetables during the mission. Proposed design of conveyor-type plant growth facility (PGF) comprised of 4-modules. Each module has a cylindrical planting surface and spiral cylindrical LED assembly to provide a high specific productivity relative to utilized onboard resources. Each module has a growth chamber that will be from 0.7 m to 1.5 m in length, and a crop illuminated area from 1.7 m2 to 4.0 m2. Leafy crops (cabbage, lettuce, spinach, chard, etc.) have been selected for module 1, primarily because of the highest specific productivity per consumed resources. Dietitians have recommended also carrot crop for module 2, pepper for module 3 and tomato for module 4. The maximal total PGF light energy estimated as 1.16 kW and total power consumption as about 7 kW. The module 1 characteristics have been calculated using own experimental data, information from the best on ground plant growth experiments with artificial light were used to predict crop productivity and biomass composition in the another modules. 4-module PGF could produce nearly 0.32 kg per crew member per day of fresh edible biomass, which would be about 50% of recommended daily vegetable supplement. An average crop harvest index is estimated as 0.75. The MTV food system could be entirely closed in terms of vitamins C and A with help of the PGF. In addition the system could provide 10–25% of essential minerals and vitamins of group B, and about 20% of food fibers. The present state of plant growth technology allows formulating of requirements specification for the flight-qualified modules.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2009.03.002 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117709001720
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Light emitting diodes for manipulating the phytochrome apparatus

2009

Gary W. Stutte

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are solid-state, long-lived, durable sources of narrow-band light output that can be used in a range of horticultural and photobiological applications. LED technology is rapidly developing and high-quality, high-output LEDs are becoming commercially available at an affordable cost. LEDs provide the opportunity to optimize the spectra for a given plant response, but consideration must be given to both photosynthetic and photomorphogenic effects of light while making those selections. A discussion of basic phytochrome response and data necessary to select narrow-band LEDs to achieve a specific photostationary state is provided. The use of LEDs to alter spectral quality, and phytochrome equilibrium, to regulate anthocyanin formation in red leaf lettuce and to regulate flowering of short-day strawberry are discussed.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.44.2.231 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/44/2/article-p231.xml
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Influence of daily light period and irradiance on yield and leaf elemental concentration of hydroponically grown sweetpotato

2009

Desmond G. Mortley,Stephanie Burrell,Conrad K. Bonsi,Walter A. Hill,Carlton E. Morris

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Growth chamber experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of irradiance and daily light period on storage root yield and leaf elemental concentration of two sweetpotato cultivars grown hydroponically by use of the nutrient film technique (NFT). Stem cuttings (15 cm) of cv. Whatley/Loretan and Georgia Jet were grown in NFT channels (0.15 × 0.15 × 1.2 m) in reach-in growth chambers under light period/irradiance combinations of 18 h: 300 μmol·m−2·s−1 or 9 h: 600 μmol·m−2·s−1 photosynthetic photon flux. Temperature was 28/22 °C light/dark with a relative humidity of 70% ± 5%. Storage root and foliage yields were greater in both cultivars exposed to a longer daily light period and lower irradiance. The main effect of cultivar indicated that storage root yield was significantly greater among plants of ‘Whatley/Loretan’ compared with that of ‘Georgia Jet’, whereas foliage yield was similar between cultivars. Leaves of plants grown under longer daily light period and lower irradiance had significantly lower concentrations of all elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, iron, calcium, boron, and zinc, except for calcium, manganese, and boron. There were no significant differences in leaf elemental concentration between cultivars. Thus, a longer daily light and lower irradiance enhanced biomass production of sweetpotato but reduced leaf elemental concentration probably because of a “dilution” effect.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.44.5.1491 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/44/5/article-p1491.xml
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Effect of light quality on morphology and antioxidant content of red leaf lettuce

2009

GW Stutte, S Edney, P Bisbee, T Skerritt

publication: unknown

Abstract

Lactuca sativa cv. Outredgeous was grown under either fluorescent lamps or light emitting diodes (LEDs) to test the hypothesis that anti-oxidant potential could be regulated by light quality. Red leaf lettuce was grown at 300 μmol m -2 s -1 of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), 1200 μmol mol -1 CO 2 , 23 o C, and an 18h light /6 hr dark photoperiod in controlled environment chambers. The LED treatments were selected to provide different amounts of red (640 nm), blue (440 nm), green (530 nm) and far red (730 nm) light in the spectra. Total anthocyanin content and the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of the tissue were measured at harvest. The source of light had a dramatic effect on both plant growth and production of radioprotective compounds. LED's resulted in 50% greater bioprotectant content per plant at the same light level over triphosphor fluorescent lamps. Blue LED's (440 nm) appeared to regulate the pathways leading to increased concentration of bioprotective compounds in leaf tissue. LED lighting induced a number of effects on morphology that increased both accumulation of bioprotective compounds and total yield.
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gary-Stutte/publication/267428014_13_EFFECT_OF_LIGHT_QUALITY...
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On-site resoures available for space agriculture on Mars

2009

M. Yamashita, H. Hashimoto, H. Wada

publication: Badescu, V. (eds) Mars. Springer, Berlin

Abstract

Mars is the second target of our manned space flight next to the Moon, and possibly the most distant extraterrestrial body to which we could travel, land and explore within the next half century. The requirements and design of life support for a Mars mission are quite different from those being operated on near Earth orbit or prepared for a lunar mission, because of the long mission duration. A Mars mission must include at least 2.5 years for round trip travel, and a restricted opening of the launch window, both for forward and return flights once every two years. Precursor manned mission to Mars might be conducted with a small number of crew and a conservative life support system on the space ship. Once the scale of the manned mission is enlarged, an advanced bio-regenerative life support system provides an “economical” advantage over the open loop life support, based on cost comparison between the cumulative sum of consumables with the open loop system versus the initial investment for a recycling system. We further propose use of on-site resources to supplement loss of component materials in the recycling process. Reproducing recycling materials on an expanded scale is another advantage of the use of on-site resources for space agriculture.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-03629-3_18 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-03629-3_18
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Nutritional, physical and sensory evaluation of hydroponic carrots (Daucus carota L.) from different nutrient Delivery systems

2009

P.N. Gichuhi,D. Mortley,E. Bromfield,A.C. Bovell‐Benjamin

publication: Journal of food science

Abstract

Carrot (Daucus carota L.) has the highest carotenoid content among foods and is consumed in large quantities worldwide, while at the same time its market demand continues to increase. Carotenoids have also been associated with protective effects against cancer and other chronic diseases. The most predominant carotenoids in carrots are beta- and alpha-carotenes. Moisture, ash, fat, texture, color, carotene content, and consumer acceptance of carrots grown in a hydroponic system with nutrient film technique (NFT) and microporous tube membrane system (MTMS) were evaluated. The moisture contents of the NFT- and MTMS-grown carrots ranged from 86.8 +/- 0.13% to 92.2 +/- 2.25% and 80.9 +/- 0.31% to 91.6 +/- 1.01%, respectively. Fat and ash contents of the carrots were negligible. NFT-grown Oxheart had the most beta-carotene (9900 +/- 20 microg/100 g) while Juwaroot had the least (248 +/- 10 microg/100 g). However, the beta-carotene content of Juwaroot from the NFT batch II carrots was 3842 +/- 6 microg/100 g. MTMS-grown carrots had less variation in the total beta-carotene contents (2434 +/- 89 to 10488 +/- 8 microg/100 g) than those from NFT. Overall, Nantes Touchan (4.8 +/- 2.3) and Nevis-F (7 +/- 1.4) from NFT were the least and most preferred by consumers. Mignon was also acceptable to consumers, and significantly (P < 0.05) more preferred than the other carrots in that NFT batch. MTMS-grown Kinko and Paramex, which were significantly (P < 0.05) more preferred than Nandrin-F and the commercial field-grown carrot, were equally liked by consumers. Nevis-F, Mignon (NFT), Paramex, and Kinko (MTMS) are potentially good cultivars to be included in NASA's food system.
doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01338.x pubmed: 20492130 link: https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01338.x
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International Space Station Science Research Accomplishments During the Assembly Years: An Analysis of Results from. International Space Station

2009

CA Evans, JA Robinson, J Tate-Brown, T Thumm, J Crespo-Richey, D Baumann, J Rhatigan

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

This report summarizes research accomplishments on the International Space Station (ISS) through the first 15 Expeditions. When research programs for early Expeditions were established, five administrative organizations were executing research on ISS: bioastronautics research, fundamental space biology, physical science, space product development, and space flight. The Vision for Space Exploration led to changes in NASA's administrative structures, so we have grouped experiments topically by scientific themes human research for exploration, physical and biological sciences, technology development, observing the Earth, and educating and inspiring the next generation even when these do not correspond to the administrative structure at the time at which they were completed. The research organizations at the time at which the experiments flew are preserved in the appendix of this document. These investigations on the ISS have laid the groundwork for research planning for Expeditions to come. Humans performing scientific investigations on ISS serve as a model for the goals of future Exploration missions. The success of a wide variety of investigations is an important hallmark of early research on ISS. Of the investigations summarized here, some are completed with results released, some are completed with preliminary results, and some remain ongoing.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20090029998
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Transmission and distribution of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) from solar and electric light sources

2009

T. Nakamura, A.D. van Pelt, N.C. Yorio, A.E. Drysdale, R.M. Wheeler, J.C. Sager

publication: Habitation

Abstract

This paper discusses the development and initial testing of a solar plant lighting system which collects, transmits and distributes photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) for controlled environment crop production. In this system, solar light, or light from an electric lamp, is collected by reflector optics and focused on the end of an optical wave guide cable. The light is filtered by the selective beam splitter to reject non-PAR ( < 400 nm and  > 700 nm) from the light path to minimize the introduction of heat into the plant growth chamber. The PAR (400 nm <  < 700 nm) is transmitted to the plant growth chamber where the light is distributed uniformly over the growing area. The lighting capability of the system was evaluated for solar and electric light sources. Based on the results we conclude that the solar plant lighting system with a supplemental electric light source is a viable and effective concept for space based crop production.
link: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/habit/2009/00000012/00000001/art00012
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Outline of material circulation – Closed habitation experiments conducted in 2005 – 2007 using closed ecology experiment facilities

2009

Yasuhiro Tako,Tsuyoshi Masuda,Sho-ichi Tsuga,Ryuji Arai,Osamu Komatsubara,Susumu Nozoe,Youichi Aibe,Masanori Shinohara,Manami Suzuki,Masanao Ishioka,Koichi Abe,Yoshio Ishikawa,Keiji Nitta,Masato Sakurai

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

The Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities (CEEF) were installed to collect data for estimation of transfer of radionuclides from atmosphere to humans in the ecosystem. The first target among the radio-nuclides is 14C. In order to validate function of material circulation in an experimental system constructed in the CEEF, circulation of air constituents, water and materials in waste was demonstrated connecting the Closed Plant Experiment Facility (CPEF) and the Closed Animal and Human habitation Experiment Facility (CAHEF) of the CEEF, since 2005 to 2007. The CPEF has a Plant Cultivation Module (PCM), which comprises of three plant chambers illuminated solely by artificial lighting, one plant chamber illuminated by both natural and artificial lighting, a space for preparation, and an airlock, and a physical/chemical material circulation system. The CAHEF has an Animal keeping and Human habitation Module (AHM), which is comprised of an animal room, a habitation room, a closed corridor, an airlock, and a physical/chemical material circulation system. During the material circulation experiments, two humans (called eco-nauts) stayed in the CEEF being isolated from the outside. In these experiments, 23 crops including rice, soybean, peanut, and sugar beet were cultivated in the PCM, and two goats stayed in the AHM. Almost all of the food consumed by the eco-nauts and the feed to the goats (straw, leaf and bran of rice, leaf and stem of soybean, and leaf, stem and shell of peanut) were produced from crops in the PCM. The oxygen added to the air in the PCM by photosynthesis of crops was separated and supplied to the air in the AHM. Increased carbon dioxide in the AHM atmosphere by respiration of eco-nauts and goats was separated and supplied back to the air in the PCM. In addition to food production and circulation of air, water circulation was also conducted in the CEEF in 2006 and 2007. In addition to them, waste processing and circulation of materials from the waste in the CEEF were also conducted in 2007. Closed habitation experiments in 2005, each lasting one week, were conducted three times. In 2006, although the eco-nauts changed by week, 2-week habitation was conducted three times. In 2007, 1-week, 2-week (two times) and 4week habitation were conducted. Data obtained in all of above experiments conducted in 2005–2007 will be also invaluable for examination and planning of human-in-loop systems necessary for independent long-term human living habitats such as lunar or Martian base.
doi: 10.4271/2009-01-2580 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2009-01-2580/
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Providing optimal root-zone fluid fluxes: Effects of hysteresis on capillary-dominated water distributions in reduced gravity

2009

Robert Heinse,Scott B. Jones,Markus Tuller,Gail E. Bingham,Igor Podolskiy,Dani Or

publication: SAE Technical Paper

Abstract

Management of water, air and nutrients in coarse-textured porous plant-growth substrates relies not only on the relative amounts of fluids but also on their distribution within porous media. Integration of plants in future life support systems for space exploration raises the question of how fluid distributions in porous plant-growth substrates are altered under reduced gravitational conditions. Central to addressing this issue is the behavior of the water retention characteristic (WRC). WRC encapsulates fluid-porous medium interactions and is key for control of water supply to plants. The hysteretic nature of WRC implies non-homogenous water distributions between its primary draining and wetting curves. During dynamic drainage and wetting cycles, considerable water content gradients develop at separations of only a few pore lengths. In the absence of a gravity force, these non-homogeneous distributions give rise to considerably different fluid distribution relative to terrestrial observations in the same porous media. Consequently, such altered fluid distributions may reduce connectivity and increase tortuosity of gaseous pathways sustaining diffusive gas transport compared to terrestrial conditions for similar air-filled contents. Such changes in fluid pathways may induce limitations to exchange of respiratory gases for plant roots, and highlight a range of other potential changes in microgravity behavior of capillary dominated processes important for distribution and transport of fluids in porous media.
doi: 10.4271/2009-01-2360 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2009-01-2360/
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Sweet basil requires an irradiance of 500 μmol m-2 s-1 for greatest edible biomiass production

2009

A.R. Beaman, R.J. Gladon, J.S. Schrader

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Energy conservation in controlled-environment agriculture is a major concern for both commercial and research facilities as well as extraterrestrial facilities for food production. Supplying optimal irradiance by using electrical lighting for the greatest edible biomass production potentially is the greatest draw on energy during earth-based or extraterrestrial food production in controlled environments. Our objective was to determine the optimal irradiance for greatest edible biomass production of three cultivars of basil (Basilicum ocimum L.) in a controlled-environment production system. Seedlings of the three cultivars were transplanted into soilless medium, one plant per pot, and grew for 17 days in reach-in growth chambers maintained at 25 ± 4 °C with a 16-h photoperiod. Canopy-level irradiances of 300, 400, 500, and 600 μmol·m−2·s−1 were provided by cool-white fluorescent and incandescent lamps. Shoot growth was measured as height, diameter, and number of leaves 0.5 cm long or greater; and edible biomass was measured as leaf fresh weight, shoot fresh weight, and shoot dry weight. There was no irradiance × cultivar interaction, but main effects of irradiance and cultivar were observed. Plant growth and edible biomass production were least at 300 μmol·m−2·s−1 and greatest at 500 or 600 μmol·m−2·s−1. In several cases, 400 μmol·m−2·s−1 yielded intermediate growth or edible biomass. Within the main effect of cultivar, Italian Large Leaf produced greater edible biomass than ‘Genovese’, and ‘Nufar’ yielded an intermediate amount of shoot fresh weight and dry weight. Under our environmental conditions that included ambient CO2 concentration and ambient relative humidity, the rate of growth peaked at 500 μmol·m−2·s−1, and no additional accumulation of edible biomass occurred at 600 μmol·m−2·s−1. Based on our results, canopy-level irradiance of 500 μmol·m−2·s−1 provides maximum edible biomass production of basil in a controlled-environment production system.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.44.1.64 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/44/1/article-p64.xml
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Canadian advanced life support capacities and future directions

2009

M. Bamsey,T. Graham,M. Stasiak,A. Berinstain,A. Scott,T. Rondeau Vuk,M. Dixon

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Canada began research on space-relevant biological life support systems in the early 1990s. Since that time Canadian capabilities have grown tremendously, placing Canada among the emerging leaders in biological life support systems. The rapid growth of Canadian expertise has been the result of several factors including a large and technically sophisticated greenhouse sector which successfully operates under challenging climatic conditions, well planned technology transfer strategies between the academic and industrial sectors, and a strong emphasis on international research collaborations. Recent activities such as Canada’s contribution of the Higher Plant Compartment of the European Space Agency’s MELiSSA Pilot Plant and the remote operation of the Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse in the Canadian High Arctic continue to demonstrate Canadian capabilities with direct applicability to advanced life support systems. There is also a significant latent potential within Canadian institutions and organizations with respect to directly applicable advanced life support technologies. These directly applicable research interests include such areas as horticultural management strategies (for candidate crops), growth media, food processing, water management, atmosphere management, energy management, waste management, imaging, environment sensors, thermal control, lighting systems, robotics, command and data handling, communications systems, structures, in-situ resource utilization, space analogues and mission operations. With this background and in collaboration with the Canadian aerospace industry sector, a roadmap for future life support contributions is presented here. This roadmap targets an objective of at least 50% food closure by 2050 (providing greater closure in oxygen, water recycling and carbon dioxide uptake). The Canadian advanced life support community has chosen to focus on lunar surface infrastructure and not low Earth orbit or transit systems (i.e. microgravity applications). To advance the technical readiness for the proposed lunar missions, including a lunar plant growth lander, lunar “salad machine” (i.e. small scale plant production unit) and a full scale lunar plant production system, a suite of terrestrial developments and analogue systems are proposed. As has been successfully demonstrated by past Canadian advanced life support activities, terrestrial technology transfer and the development of highly qualified personnel will serve as key outputs for Canadian advanced life support system research programs. This approach is designed to serve the Canadian greenhouse industry by developing compliance measures for mitigating environmental impact, reducing labour and energy costs as well as improving Canadian food security, safety and benefit northern/remote communities.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2009.03.024 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117709002117
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Four-month Moon and Mars crew water utilization study conducted at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station, Devon Island, Nunavut

2009

M. Bamsey,A. Berinstain,S. Auclair,M. Battler,K. Binsted,K. Bywaters,J. Harris,R. Kobrick,C. McKay

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

A categorized water usage study was undertaken at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station on Devon Island, Nunavut in the High Canadian Arctic. This study was conducted as part of a long duration four-month Mars mission simulation during the summer of 2007. The study determined that the crew of seven averaged 82.07 L/day over the expedition (standard deviation 22.58 L/day). The study also incorporated a Mars Time Study phase which determined that an average of 12.12 L/sol of water was required for each crewmember. Drinking, food preparation, hand/face, oral, dish wash, clothes wash, shower, shaving, cleaning, engineering, science, plant growth and medical water were each individually monitored throughout the detailed study phases. It was determined that implementing the monitoring program itself resulted in an approximate water savings of 1.5 L/day per crewmember. The seven person crew averaged 202 distinct water draws a day (standard deviation 34) with high water use periods focusing around meal times. No statistically significant correlation was established between total water use and EVA or exercise duration. Study results suggest that current crew water utilization estimates for long duration planetary surface stays are more than two times greater than that required.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2009.01.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117709000386
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Sustained salad crop production requirements for lunar surface

2009

Gary W. Stutte,Oscar Monje,Neil C. Yorio,Sharon L. Edney,Gerard Newsham,Lisa Connole,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: International Conference On Environmental Systems

Abstract

A long-duration lunar outpost will rely entirely upon imported or preserved foods to sustain the crew during early Lunar missions. Fresh, perishable foods (e.g. salad crops) would be consumed by the crew soon after delivery by the re-supply missions, and can provide a supplement to the diet rich in antioxidants (bioprotectants) that would serve as a countermeasure to radiation exposure. Although controlled environment research has been carried out on the growth of salad crops under a range of environmental conditions, there has been no demonstration of sustainable production in a flight-like system under conditions that might be encountered in space. Several fundamental challenges that must be overcome in order to achieve sustained salad crop production under the power, volume and mass constraints of early Lunar outposts include; growing multiple species, sustaining productivity through multiple plantings, and minimizing time for crew operations. In addition, issues associated with nutrient replenishment, maintenance of water balance, and environmental compatibility need to be addressed. A project has been initiated in the Space Life Sciences Laboratory at Kennedy Space Center to address these questions using two salad production chambers that were built for flight operation as a part of a small business innovative research program (SBIR) Phase 2 grant.
doi: 10.4271/2009-01-2381 link: https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2009-01-2381/
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Testing anti-fungal activity of a soil-like substrate for growing plants in bioregenerative life support systems

2009

E.V. Nesterenko, V.A. Kozlov, S.V. Khizhnyak, N.S. Manukovsky, V.S. Kovalev, Yu L. Gurevich, Hong Liu, Yidong Xing, Enzhu Hu

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The object of this research is to study a soil-like substrate (SLS) to grow plants in a Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS). Wheat and rice straw were used as raw materials to prepare SLS. Anti-fungal activity of SLS using test cultures of Bipolaris sorokiniana, a plant-pathogenic fungus which causes wheat root rot was studied. Experiments were conducted with SLS samples, using natural soil and sand as controls. Infecting the substrates, was performed at two levels: the first level was done with wheat seeds carrying B. sorokiniana and the second level with seeds and additional conidia of B. sorokiniana from an outside source. We measured wheat disease incidence and severity in two crop plantings. Lowest disease incidence values were obtained from the second planting, SLS: 26% and 41% at the first and the second infection levels, respectively. For soil the values were 60% and 82%, respectively, and for sand they were 67% and 74%, respectively. Wheat root rot in the second crop planting on SLS, at both infection levels was considerably less severe (9% and 13%, respectively) than on natural soil (20% and 33%) and sand (22% and 32%). SLS significantly suppressed the germination of B. sorokiniana conidia. Conidia germination was 5% in aqueous SLS suspension, and 18% in clean water. No significant differences were found regarding the impact on conidia germination between the SLS samples obtained from wheat and rice straw. The anti-fungal activity in SLS increased because of the presence of worms. SLS also contained bacteria stimulating and inhibiting B. sorokiniana growth.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2009.06.014 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117709003925
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Potatoes for human life support in space

2009

R.M. Wheeler

publication: Advances in Potato Chemistry and Technology

Abstract

Potatoes are highly productive, rich in digestible carbohydrate, a significant source of protein, and are easily propagated. They do not require extensive processing steps for consumption, as do crops like soybean and some grains, and when potatoes are strongly induced to tuberize, their harvest index can exceed 80%, which is nearly double that of grain crops. The physiological controlled studies of potatoes revealed some interesting phenomena, including physiological intolerance of some cvs. (Cultivars for Space) to continuous light, increased stomatal conductance at super-elevated CO2 concentrations, ethylene production by whole canopies, and yields approaching 200 t ha-1 under high light and CO2 enrichment. Small-scale space flight experiments showed that tubers can form and sprout in weightlessness.
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-374349-7.00017-9 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123743497000179
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Roadmaps and strategies for crop research for bioregenerative life support systems

2009

R.M. Wheeler

publication: NASA Technical Reports

Abstract

Extensive testing with plants for bioregenerative life support systems has been conducted by NASA for nearly 40 years, both through university grants and work at NASA field centers. During this time, numerous meetings were held to develop strategies and roadmaps for implementing bioregenerative life support systems. Findings from several of these meetings are summarized in this report. In nearly all cases, the recommendations included an active ground-based research program and integration tests with other life support subsystems, followed by eventual spaceflight testing. The most recent roadmap of NASA’s Exploration Life Support Crop Element suggests a sequence of first developing a modular vegetable production unit (VPU) to provide perishable foods to supplement the crew’s diet. A similar system could then be used on the lunar surface, with additional modules added as the lunar outpost expands. Eventually, these modules could be transferred to a dedicated pressurized logistics module (PLM) for crop production. Experience from the lunar tests could then be used to conduct a similar buildup for Mars missions, where in situ food production and bioregeneration would be important for achieving outpost autonomy. To date, most trade studies of bioregenerative life support systems indicate that reducing the costs associated with crop lighting systems are key, and use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or direct solar lighting offers promising options. Likewise, sustaining high yields and high harvest index (% edible biomass) will be important for minimizing costs, and this can be achieved by optimizing growth environments and through selecting, breeding, and genetically engineering crops suitable for space environments. Collectively, these strategies and roadmaps suggest that a combined approach of fundamental research, hardware (plant chamber) development, and operational testing is required to achieve reliable bioregenerative life support systems.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20230012055
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Silkworm culture as a source of protein for humans in space

2009

Yunan Yang,Liman Tang,Ling Tong,Hong Liu

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

This paper focuses on the problem about a configuration with complete nutrition for humans in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) applied in the spacebases. The possibility of feeding silkworms to provide edible animal protein with high quality for taikonauts during long-term spaceflights and lunar-based missions was investigated from several aspects, including the nutrition structure of silkworms, feeding method, processing methods, feeding equipment, growing conditions and the influences on the space environmental condition changes caused by the silkworms. The originally inedible silk is also regarded as a protein source. A possible process of edible silk protein was brought forward in this paper. After being processed, the silk can be converted to edible protein for humans. The conclusion provides a promising approach to solving the protein supply problem for the taikonauts living in space during an extended exploration period.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2008.12.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117708006753
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Conceptual design of a bioregenerative life support system containing crops and silkworms

2010

Enzhu Hu,Sergey I. Bartsev,Hong Liu

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

This article summarizes a conceptual design of a bioregenerative life support system for permanent lunar base or planetary exploration. The system consists of seven compartments – higher plants cultivation, animal rearing, human habitation, water recovery, waste treatment, atmosphere management, and storages. Fifteen kinds of crops, such as wheat, rice, soybean, lettuce, and mulberry, were selected as main life support contributors to provide the crew with air, water, and vegetable food. Silkworms fed by crop leaves were designated to produce partial animal nutrition for the crew. Various physical-chemical and biological methods were combined to reclaim wastewater and solid waste. Condensate collected from atmosphere was recycled into potable water through granular activated carbon adsorption, iodine sterilization, and trace element supplementation. All grey water was also purified though multifiltration and ultraviolet sterilization. Plant residue, human excrement, silkworm feces, etc. were decomposed into inorganic substances which were finally absorbed by higher plants. Some meat, ingredients, as well as nitrogen fertilizer were prestored and resupplied periodically. Meanwhile, the same amount and chemical composition of organic waste was dumped to maintain the steady state of the system. A nutritional balanced diet was developed by means of the linear programming method. It could provide 2721 kcal of energy, 375.5 g of carbohydrate, 99.47 g of protein, and 91.19 g of fat per capita per day. Silkworm powder covered 12.54% of total animal protein intakes. The balance of material flows between compartments was described by the system of stoichiometric equations. Basic life support requirements for crews including oxygen, food, potable and hygiene water summed up to 29.68 kg per capita per day. The coefficient of system material closure reached 99.40%.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2009.11.022 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027311770900725X
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Expression of stress response genes in barley Hordeum vulgare in a spaceflight environment.

2010

E. I. Shagimardanova,O. A. Gusev,V. N. Sychev,M. A. Levinskikh,M. R. Sharipova,O. N. Il’inskaya,G. Bingham,M. Sugimoto

publication: Molecular biology

Abstract

The transcriptome of barley Hordeum vulgare grown aboard the International Space Station was studied using microarray analysis. In the spaceflight environment, mRNA levels of over 500 genes were changed more than twofold; among them, genes of stress response proteins, in particular, heat shock proteins, pathogenesis-related proteins, and antioxidant proteins. Further analysis by real-time PCR confirmed enhanced transcription of reactive oxygen species scavenging genes. The superoxide dismutase (sod) mRNA level in the space environment was 6-fold higher than in earth conditions. The transcript levels of glutamyl transferase (gst), catalase (cat), and ascorbate peroxidase (apx) were increased in spaceflight 24, 18, and 3 times in comparison to ground control, respectively. For the first time, it has been shown that spaceflight environment can induce oxidative stress in plants.
doi: 10.1134/S0026893310050080 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0026893310050080
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Comparison of three soil-like substrate production techniques for a bioregenerative life support system

2010

Wenting He,Hong Liu,Yidong Xing,Scott B. Jones

publication: Advances in space research

Abstract

It is very important to recycle the inedible biomass of higher plants to improve the closure of bioregenerative life support system (BLSS). Processing candidate higher plant residues into the soil-like substrate (SLS) as the plant growth medium is a promising way to achieve. In this study, three different processing techniques of SLSs, using residues of wheat and rice as feedstock, were compared. As for the first traditional technique, SLS1 was obtained by successive conversion of wheat straw by oyster mushrooms and worms. In the other two methods, SLSs were produced with aerobic fermentation (SLS2) or anaerobic fermentation (SLS3) followed by worm conversion. The changes in SLS cellulose, lignin, available elements and pH were measured during the production processes. The maturity was evaluated by the value of C/N. The fertilities were compared in terms of available elements contents and lettuce productivities. The results indicated that the second technique was optimal, whose process cycle was 30 days less than that of SLS1. The total cellulose and lignin degradation of SLS2, achieved 98.6% and 93.1% during the 93-days-processing, and the lettuce productivity reached 12.0 g m−2 day−1.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2010.05.027 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117710003728
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Microbiological analysis of Lada Vegetable Production Units (VPU) to define critical control points and procedures to ensure the safety of space grown vegetables

2010

Mary Hummerick,Jay Garland,Gail Bingham,V Sychev,I. Podolsky

publication: 40th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

The Lada Vegetable Production Unit (VPU), flight hardware currently deployed on the Russian module of the Internation! Space Station (ISS), is being used to validate the food safety of fresh “space-grown” crops. The goal is to develop a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) plan to minimize potential microbial risks to the astronauts. Microbiological data has been collected from both plant tissue and hardware (e.g., root modules) returned from studies with a variety of crops grown on ISS. These data, which include estimates of microbial density and identification of the bacteria and fungi isolated, are useful in understanding and defining microbiological risks present in the ISS. In addition to flight studies, ground experiments have been done to define normal microbial loads and understand the fate and survival of human associated pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium) in the Lada VPU. As part of the study, protocols were tested to determine the effectiveness of a sanitizer approved by the FDA and USDA (Pro-San) to achieve acceptable levels of microbes on VPU surfaces and vegetables. The sanitizer was used to clean chamber surfaces at regular intervals during four successive crop harvests, and as a post-harvest treatment of edible plant materials (i.e., mizuna leaves, radish bulbs). The sanitation protocol was effective in keeping the microbial density lower on the surfaces of the leaf chamber and root module and in reducing the numbers of culturable bacteria and fungi on the vegetables. These data have been used to develop a draft HACCP plan for space grown crops, which will be finalized during the next year.
doi: 10.2514/6.2010-6255 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2010-6255
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Effects of long-term low atmospheric pressure on gas exchange and growth of lettuce

2010

Yongkang Tang,Shuangsheng Guo,Wenping Dong,Lifeng Qin,Weidang Ai,Shan Lin

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The objectives of this research were to determine photosynthesis, evapotranspiration and growth of lettuce at long-term low atmospheric pressure. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Youmaicai) plants were grown at 40 kPa total pressure (8.4 kPa pO2) or 101 kPa total pressure (20.9 kPa pO2) from seed to harvest for 35 days. Germination rate of lettuce seeds decreased by 7.6% at low pressure, although this was not significant. There was no significant difference in crop photosynthetic rate between hypobaria and ambient pressure during the 35-day study. The crop evapotranspiration rate was significantly lower at low pressure than that at ambient pressure from 20 to 30 days after planting (DAP), but it had no significant difference before 20 DAP or after 30 DAP. The growth cycle of lettuce plants at low pressure was delayed. At low pressure, lettuce leaves were curly at the seedling stage and this disappeared gradually as the plants grew. Ambient lettuce plants were yellow and had an epinastic growth at harvest. The shoot height, leaf number, leaf length and shoot/root ratio were lower at low pressure than those at ambient pressure, while leaf area and root growth increased. Total biomass of lettuce plants grown at two pressures had no significant difference. Ethylene production at low pressure decreased significantly by 38.8% compared with ambient pressure. There was no significant difference in microelements, nutritional phytochemicals and nitrate concentrations at the two treatments. This research shows that lettuce can be grown at long-term low pressure (40 kPa) without significant adverse effects on seed germination, gas exchange and plant growth. Furthermore, ethylene release was reduced in hypobaria.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2010.02.025 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117710003042
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Minimizing energy utilization for growing strawberries during long-duration space habitation

2010

Gioia D. Massa,Judith B. Santini,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Advances in space research

Abstract

Strawberry is a candidate crop for space that is rich in protective antioxidants and could also have psychological benefits as a component of crew diets during long-duration space habitation. Energy for electric lighting is a major input to a controlled-environment crop-production system for space habitation. Day-neutral strawberry cultivars were evaluated at several different photoperiods to determine minimum lighting requirements without limiting yield or negatively impacting fruit quality. The cultivars ‘Tribute’, ‘Seascape’, and ‘Fern’ were grown at 14, 17, or 20 h of light per day, and fruit yield was evaluated over a 31-week production period. This amounted to a difference of 2418 kWh m−2 in energy usage between the longest and shortest photoperiods. All cultivars produced similar total fresh weight of fruit regardless of photoperiod. Volunteer tasters rated organoleptic characteristics including sweetness, tartness, texture, and overall appeal as measures of fruit quality. Generally, organoleptic attributes were not affected by photoperiod, but these attributes were somewhat dependent upon cultivar and harvest time. Cultivars under different photoperiods varied in their production of fruit over time. ‘Seascape’ was the most consistent producer, typically with the largest, most palatable fruit. ‘Seascape’ plants subsequently were grown at 10-, 12-, or 14-h photoperiods over a treatment period of 33 weeks. Photoperiod again had no significant effect on total fruit weight, although there were periodic flushes of productivity. Fruit under all photoperiods had acceptable approval ratings. A large-fruited, day-neutral strawberry cultivar such as ‘Seascape’ remains productive under shortened photoperiods, allowing reductions in energy and crew labor while maintaining flexibility for mixed-cropping scenarios in space.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2010.02.025 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117710001432
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Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Capacity in Barley Grown under Space Environment.

2010

Elena SHAGIMARDANOVA,Oleg GUSEV,Gail E. BINGHAM,Margarita A. LEVINSKIKH,Vladimir N. SYCHEV,Zhou TIANSU,Makoto KIHARA,Kazutoshi ITO,Manabu SUGIMOTO

publication: Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry

Abstract

The gene expression and enzyme activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase in the space-grown barley were not significantly different from those of the ground-grown barley. Cu2+ reducing and radical scavenging activities in an extract of the space-grown barley were lower than those of the ground-grown barley by 0.7 fold, suggesting that the space environment does not induce oxidative stress, and reduces antioxidant capacity in plants.
doi: 10.1271/bbb.100139 pubmed: 20622437 link: https://academic.oup.com/bbb/article-abstract/74/7/1479/5940062
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MELISSA: The European project of a closed life support system

2010

C. Lasseur, J.D. Brunet, H. De Weever, M. Dixon, C.G. Dussap, F. Godia, M. Mergeay, D. Van Der Straeten, W. Verstraete

publication: Gravitational and Space Biology

Abstract

The MELiSSA (Micro-ecological life-support system) project is intended to be a tool to gain understanding of closed life-support systems, and consequently a knowledge base for European development of regenerative life-support systems for long-term manned missions (e.g. lunar base, Mars mission). The driving elements of MELiSSA are the production of food, water, and oxygen from the organic wastes of the mission (e.g., urine, CO2,). Inspired by a terrestrial “aquatic” ecosystem, the MELiSSA process consists of five main sub-processes called compartments, from the anoxygenic thermophilic up to the photo-autrophic (e.g., higher plants). The choice of this compartmentalized structure is required by the very high level of space requirements in terms of robustness and safety. During the 20 years of the project, a very progressive and structured approach has been developed to characterize, model, and control the MELiSSA loop. This approach starts from the selection of the involved sub-processes, up to its predictive control. The project is structured on a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) and is managed by ESA. It involves roughly 30 organizations encompassing Europe and Canada; eleven of these organizations, called partners, have signed the MOU: University of Ghent, University of MonsHainault, Studie Centrum voor Kernergie, Vlamish Institute Technology Onderzoek (B), University of Clermont-Ferrand, Sherpa Engineering, Technomembranes (F), University Autonoma de Barcelona (E), University of Guelph (CDN), IP Star (NL) and the European Space Agency. The project is cofunded by ESA, the MELiSSA partners, and local and national authorities. The project is organized in five phases: basic R&D, preliminary flight experiments, ground and space demonstration, technology transfer, and communication and education. More than a complete status of the project, this paper presents an overview of recent achievements.
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sheila-Nathan/publication/233918527_Gene_expression_changes_...
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Sodium—A Functional Plant Nutrient

2010

G. V. Subbarao,O. Ito,W. L. Berry,R. M. Wheeler

publication: Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences

Abstract

Plant scientists usually classify plant mineral nutrients based on the concept of “essentiality” defined by Arnon and Stout as those elements necessary to complete the life cycle of a plant. Certain other elements such as Na have a ubiquitous presence in soils and waters and are widely taken up and utilized by plants, but are not considered as plant nutrients because they do not meet the strict definition of “essentiality.” Sodium has a very specific function in the concentration of carbon dioxide in a limited number of C4 plants and thus is essential to these plants, but this in itself is insufficient to generalize that Na is essential for higher plants. The unique set of roles that Na can play in plant metabolism suggests that the basic concept of what comprises a plant nutrient should be reexamined. We contend that the class of plant mineral nutrients should be comprised not only of those elements necessary for completing the life cycle, but also those elements which promote maximal biomass yield and/or which reduce the requirement (critical level) of an essential element. We suggest that nutrients functioning in this latter manner should be termed “functional nutrients.” Thus plant mineral nutrients would be comprised of two major groups, “essential nutrients” and “functional nutrients.” We present an array of evidence and arguments to support the classification of Na as a “functional nutrient,” including its requirement for maximal biomass growth for many plants and its demonstrated ability to replace K in a number of ways, such as being an osmoticium for cell enlargement and as an accompanying cation for long-distance transport. Although in this paper we have only attempted to make the case for Na being a “functional nutrient,” other elements such as Si and Se may also confirm to the proposed category of “functional nutrients.”
doi: 10.1080/07352680390243495 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07352680390243495
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Plants for human life support in space: From Myers to Mars

2010

R.M. Wheeler

publication: Gravitational and Space Biology

Abstract

Bioregenerative life support systems have been discussed since the writings of Tsiolkovsky in the early 20th century. Central to the concept is the use of photosynthetic organisms to regenerate air and food. Bioregenerative research expanded rapidly in the 1950s and 60s through the work of Jack Myers and colleagues, and focused largely on algal systems. Testing even included space flight experiments by Herb Ward in the 1960s, but bioregenerative research in the USA decreased soon after this. In contrast, the Russian BIOS projects led by Josef Gitelson and Henry Lisovsky maintained a steady pace of bioregenerative research from the 1960s through the 1980s, including tests with human crews lasting up to several months. Around 1980, NASA initiated its Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) Program, which focused on higher plant (crop) testing. In the late 1980s through the 1990s, findings from university CELSS researchers were used to conduct tests at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in a large, atmospherically closed chamber. Related tests with humans and regenerative life support systems were subsequently conducted at NASA's Johnson Space Center in the mid 1990s, and a large-scale bioregenerative test bed called BIO-Plex was planned but never completed. A likely scenario for implementing bioregenerative life support might start with a small plant growth unit to produce some fresh foods for the International Space Station or early lunar missions. The plantings might be expanded for longer duration lunar missions, which would then provide an opportunity to assess concepts for Mars missions, where bioregenerative life support will play a more crucial role.
link: https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA348311300&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn...
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Initial ground experiments of silkworm cultures living on different feedstock for provision of high-quality animal protein for human in space

2010

Yunan Yang,Liman Tang,Ling Tong,Yang Liu,Hong Liu,Xiaomin Li

publication: Advances in space research

Abstract

Silkworm could be an alternative to provide edible animal protein in Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) for long-term manned space missions. Silkworms can consume non-edible plant residue and convert plant nutrients to high quality edible animal protein for astronauts. The preliminary investigation of silkworm culture was carried out in earth environment. The silkworms were fed with artificial silkworm diet and the leaves of stem lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. angustana Irish) separately and the nutritional structure of silkworm was investigated and compared, The culture experiments showed that: (1) Stem lettuce leaves could be used as food of silkworm. The protein content of silkworm fed with lettuce leaves can reach 70% of dry mass. (2) The protein content of silkworm powder produced by the fifth instar silkworm larvae was 70%, which was similar to the protein content of silkworm pupae. The powder of the fifth instar silkworm larvae can be utilized by astronaut. (3) The biotransformation rate of silkworm larvae between the third instar and the fifth instar could reach above 70%. The biotransformation cycle of silkworm was determined as 24 days. (4) Using the stem lettuce leaves to raise silkworm, the coarse fiber content of silkworm excrements reached about 33%. The requirements of space silkworm culture equipment, feeding approaches and feeding conditions were also preliminarily designed and calculated. It is estimated that 2.2 m3 of culture space could satisfy daily animal protein demand for seven astronauts.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2010.04.007 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117710002449
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Advanced Greenhouse Modules for use within Planetary Habitats

2011

Daniel Schubert, Dominik Quantius, J. Hauslage, L. Glasgow, F. Schroder, M. Dorn

publication: 41st International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

This paper provides an overview about the new research initiative at the DLR Institute of Space Systems, Bremen (Germany). The research group investigates different solutions for adapting Controlled Environmental Agriculture technologies towards a space-borne greenhouse system design. A greenhouse module (as a subsystem of the habitat’s life support system) not only produces higher plants for a continuous food supply for the crew, but can also fulfill other functions such as grey water purification, oxygen production, various waste management tasks and even provides beneficial psychological health effects for the crew. A system analysis investigates all functions and subsystems needed for the plant life cycle under the paradigm of mass production principles for a variety of different plant categories.
doi: 10.2514/6.2011-5166 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2011-5166
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Plants survive rapid decompression: Implications for bioregenerative life support

2011

R.M. Wheeler,C.A. Wehkamp,M.A. Stasiak,M.A. Dixon,V.Y. Rygalov

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Radish (Raphanus sativus), lettuce (Latuca sativa), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) plants were grown at either 98 kPa (ambient) or 33 kPa atmospheric pressure with constant 21 kPa oxygen and 0.12 kPa carbon dioxide in atmospherically closed pressure chambers. All plants were grown rockwool using recirculating hydroponics with a complete nutrient solution. At 20 days after planting, chamber pressures were pumped down as rapidly as possible, reaching 5 kPa after about 5 min and ∼1.5 kPa after about 10 min. The plants were held at 1.5 kPa for 30 min and then pressures were restored to their original settings. Temperature (22 °C) and humidity (65% RH) controls were engaged throughout the depressurization, although temperatures dropped to near 16 °C for a brief period. CO2 and O2 were not detectable at the low pressure, suggesting that most of the 1.5 kPa atmosphere consisted of water vapor. Following re-pressurization, plants were grown for another 7 days at the original pressures and then harvested. The lettuce, radish, and wheat plants showed no visible effects from the rapid decompression, and there were no differences in fresh or dry mass when compared to control plants maintained continuously at 33 or 98 kPa. But radish storage root fresh mass and lettuce head fresh and dry masses were less at 33 kPa compared to 98 kPa for both the controls and decompression treatment. The results suggest that plants are extremely resilient to rapid decompression, provided they do not freeze (from evaporative cooling) or desiccate. The water of the hydroponic system was below the boiling pressure during these tests and this may have protected the plants by preventing pressures from dropping below 1.5 kPa and maintaining humidity near 1.5 kPa. Further testing is needed to determine how long plants can withstand such low pressure, but the results suggest there are at least 30 min to respond to catastrophic pressure losses in a plant production chamber that might be used for life support in space.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2010.12.017 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117710008173
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Gas exchange between humans and multibiological life support system

2011

Ling Tong,Dawei Hu,Hong Liu,Ming Li,Yuming Fu,Boyang Jia,Fangzhou Du,Enzhu Hu

publication: Ecological Engineering

Abstract

To establish a Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS) in lunar or Mars bases in the future, manned stimulation experiments including several kinds of creatures are needed to be conducted first. Gas exchange relation, element transfer and transformation principles, etc. between humans and the multibiological system composed of plants, animals, microalgae and so on must be investigated in order to place different organisms with appropriate numbers and proportions in the BLSS. This research cultivated lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) in the CICS (Closed Integrative Cultivating System) of the IES (Integrative Experimental System) with Chlorella vulgaris cultivated in the PPB (Plate Photo Bioreactor) of the IES. Conveyor-type cultivation method was implemented for harvesting the largest batch of lettuce and silkworms through the mass exchange chamber of the IES every four days and transferring the smallest batch of lettuce and silkworms into the system; carrying certain amounts of alga liquid out with nutrient liquid replenished every day. Gas exchange between testers and the IES including three phases was conducted periodically. Phase I involved one person participating in gas exchange with lettuce in plant chamber as primary means of air revitalization for 3 months. Phase II was gas exchange between one person and autotrophic creatures, which were lettuce and microalgae, for 1 month. In the Phase III test, silkworms were introduced into the animal chamber for 2 months. Mathematical modeling and experimental simulation for this system was done to study its gas robustness. Results show that CO2/O2 concentration fluctuated around normal levels, the system possessed relatively good gas robustness and there were no trace gas (CH4, NH3 and C2H4) contaminant problems in the system.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.08.013 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857411002771
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Ethylene removal evaluation and bacterial community analysis of vermicompost as biofilter material

2011

Yuming Fu,Lingzhi Shao,Hui Liu,Ling Tong,Hong Liu

publication: Journal of hazardous materials

Abstract

Biofiltration of ethylene provides an environmentally friendly and economically beneficial option relative to physical/chemical removal, where selection of appropriate bed material is crucial. Here the vermicompost with indigenous microorganisms as bed material was evaluated for ethylene removal through batch test and biofilter experiment. Temporal and spatial dynamics of bacterial community in the vermicompost-biofilter under different ethylene loads were characterized by culture and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) methods. The results showed that ethylene was effectively degraded by the vermicompost under conditions of 25-50% moisture content and 25-35°C temperature. The vermicompost-biofilter achieved nearly 100% ethylene removal up to an inlet load of 11mg m(-3)h(-1). Local nitrogen lack of the vermicompost in the biofilter was observed over operation time, but the change of pH was slight. DGGE analysis demonstrated that the bacterial abundance and community structure of vermicompost-biofilter varied with the height of biofilter under different ethylene loads. Pseudomonads and Actinobacteria were predominant in the biofilter throughout the whole experiment.
doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.05.064 pubmed: 21665363 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389411007187
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Hydroponic cultivation improves the nutritional quality of soybean and its products’

2011

Mariantonella Palermo,Roberta Paradiso,Stefania De Pascale,Vincenzo Fogliano

publication: Journal of agricultural and food chemistry

Abstract

Hydroponic cultivation allows the control of environmental conditions, saves irrigation water, increases productivity, and prevents plant infections. The use of this technique for large commodities such as soybean is not a relevant issue on fertile soils, but hydroponic soybean cultivation could provide proteins and oil in adverse environmental conditions. In this paper, the compositions of four cultivars of soybean seeds and their derivates, soy milk and okara, grown hydroponically were compared to that of the same cultivar obtained from soil cultivation in an open field. Besides proximal composition, the concentrations of phytic acid and isoflavones were monitored in the seeds, soy milk, and okara. Results demonstrated that, independent from the cultivar, hydroponic compared to soil cultivation promoted the accumulation of fats (from 17.37 to 21.94 g/100 g dry matter) and total dietary fiber (from 21.67 to 28.46 g/100 g dry matter) and reduced isoflavones concentration (from 17.04 to 7.66 mg/kg dry matter), whereas protein concentration was unaffected. The differences found in seed composition were confirmed in the respective okara products, but the effect of cultivation system was not significant looking at the soy milk composition. Data showed that hydroponic cultivation improved the nutritional quality of soybean seeds with regard to fats and dietary fiber. They also suggest that specific cultivars should be selected to obtain the desired nutritional features of the soybean raw material depending on its final destination.
doi: 10.1021/jf203275m pubmed: 22168253 link: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf203275m
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Mixed effects of CO2 concentration on photosynthesis of lettuce in a closed artificial ecosystem

2011

Enzhu Hu,Ling Tong,Dawei Hu,Hong Liu

publication: Ecological Engineering

Abstract

The photosynthetic response of higher plants to CO2 concentration in the controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) was investigated using a closed artificial ecosystem. As the representative cultivar, five batches of lettuce were cultivated in a staged mode to eliminate the influence of other biological and technical factors. Carbon dioxide was supplied by the routine respiration of researchers. A mixed effects model was established to describe the photosynthesis of lettuce crops. The fixed and random effects of parameters were estimated based on the selected data sets. The model adequacy was evaluated by the statistical analyses. The frequency histograms of the random effects were regressed using the probability density equations. The distribution of photosynthetic rate at each point of CO2 concentration on the random effects was obtained. The predictions of the model compared favorably with the experimental measurements. The model was sufficient to describe the photosynthetic property of the lettuce crops. The method discussed in this paper could be extended to investigate the mixed effects of other environmental conditions on the photosynthesis of higher plants.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.08.012 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092585741100276X
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Biological Life Support Systems for Space Crews: Some Results and Prospects

2011

V. N. Sychev,M. A. Levinskikh,T. S. Gurieva,I. G. Podolsky

publication: Human Physiology

Abstract

A set of problems of biomedical support for humans in the extreme environment of a space flight is a challenge for space biology and medicine. Designing robust and efficiently functioning life support systems (LSS) is among these problems. The paper gives an overview of the experiments with manned ground-based biological LSS (BLSS) performed in Russia and abroad. The basic data on the photoautotrophic components of BLSS (higher plants) were obtained in a series of experiments conducted on board the orbital complex Mir for 630 days in total and in the Russian segment of the International Space Station (ISS) (a series of experiments with total duration of 820 days). Analysis of the results obtained on Earth and during the space flights leads to the conclusion that some BLSS components, e.g., greenhouses, can be integrated even now into the systems that are currently used for the life support of space crews.
doi: 10.1134/S0362119711070292 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0362119711070292
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Ethylene removal efficiency and bacterial community diversity of a natural zeolite biofilter

2011

Yuming Fu,Lingzhi Shao,Ling Tong,Hong Liu

publication: Bioresource technology

Abstract

To establish an economical and environmentally friendly technology for ethylene removal from horticultural facilities and industrial point sources, a bench-scale natural zeolite biofiltration system was developed in this study. The system was evaluated for its performance in removing ethylene from an artificially contaminated air stream and characterized for its bacterial diversity under varied ethylene concentrations, and in different spatial stages of the filter. The biofilter enabled to approximately 100% remove ethylene at loading rates of 0.26-3.76 g m(-3) h(-1) when operated with inoculum containing enriched ethylene-degrading bacteria. The bacterial diversity and abundance varied with the height of the biofilter. Moreover, the occurrence and predominance of specific bacterial species varied with the concentrations of ethylene introduced into the biofilter, as observed by PCR-DGGE methods. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the biofilter system supported a diverse community of ethylene-degrading bacteria, with high similarity to species in the classes Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Bacilli, and Actinobacteria.
doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.119 pubmed: 20732808 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852410013301
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Response of radish to light and oxygen at reduced atmospheric pressure

2011

C. Wehkamp, M. Stasiak, M. Dixon

publication: 41st International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Plant productivity is mediated by numerous environmental parameters and for a bioregenerative life support system to supply the needs of the crew and be sustainable with current technological limitations, photosynthesis must be optimized. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the change in the quantum efficiency of radish grown at reduced total pressures and decreased oxygen partial pressures in response to light intensity, and to determine the carbon dioxide compensation points in order to conclude whether radish plants grown under hypobaric and reduced oxygen conditions undergo an alteration in efficiency. Light response curves showed little difference in the slope or quantum yield resulting from reduced total pressure however there was a minor increasing separation between curves across the total pressures as the light level increased. The quantum yield data showed significant variation among the oxygen partial pressures with the most significant decrease at 2 kPa of oxygen. In contrast to the light response, both pressure and oxygen had a significant effect on the whole canopy carbon dioxide compensation points. Hypobaria resulted in a reduction in the carbon dioxide compensation points however the larger effect observed was that from reduced oxygen partial pressures. Compensation points fell with decreased oxygen resulting in the lowest point at 10 kPa total pressure and 2 kPa oxygen which represented only 18% of that at ambient pressure and oxygen. This study concludes that while hypobaria does exert a physiological response, the limiting factor is primarily the oxygen partial pressure required for biochemical processes.
doi: 10.2514/6.2011-5169 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2011-5169
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Testing of greenhouse cladding materials for space environments

2011

David T. Peterside,Joseph E. Palaia,Andrew C. Schuerger,Melanie J Correll,Ray A. Bucklin

publication: Applied Engineering in Agriculture

Abstract

Bioregenerative Life Support Systems in the form of transparent, inflatable greenhouses present an economical and reliable solution for providing consumables to astronauts on long duration space missions. With NASA's goal to place human explorers on Mars, identification of cladding materials with appropriate optical and physical properties that can withstand the high ultraviolet radiation, low pressure, and low temperature Martian environment is necessary for greenhouse design. The objective of this study was to develop methods for evaluating the effects of simulated Mars environmental conditions on the transmissivity and mechanical strength of candidate greenhouse cladding materials. The University of Florida's Mars Simulation Chamber was utilized to expose material samples to simulated Mars environmental conditions. Changes in control versus exposed material sample transmissivities were measured using a spectroradiometer over a range of wavelengths from 200 to 800 nm and material peak yield stresses were determined using an Instron universal testing machine. Results indicated that, under Mars simulated environmental conditions for 42 Mars equivalent days, materials experienced a reduction in transmission in the photosynthetically active region and a decrease in material strength. In short, the methods developed in this study provide a means for evaluating the transmissivity and strength of candidate greenhouse cladding materials under Mars environmental conditions for the determination of their suitability in greenhouse design.
doi: 10.13031/2013.37071 link: https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=37071
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Concept for sustained plant production on ISS using VEGGIE capillary mat rooting system

2011

G.W. Stutte, G. Newsham, R.C. Morrow, R.M. Wheeler

publication: 41st International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Plant growth in microgravity presents unique challenges associated with maintaining appropriate conditions for seed germination, seedling establishment, maturation and harvest. They include maintaining appropriate soil moisture content, nutrient balance, atmospheric mixing and containment. Sustained production imposes additional challenges of harvesting, replanting, and safety. The VEGGIE is a deployable (collapsible) plant growth chamber developed as part of a NASA SBIR Phase II by ORBITEC, Madison, WI. The intent of VEGGIE is to provide a low-resource system to produce fresh vegetables for the crew on long duration missions. The VEGGIE uses a LED array for lighting, an expandable bellows for containment, and a capillary matting system for nutrient and water delivery. The project evaluated a number of approaches to achieve sustained production, and repeated plantings, using the capillary rooting system. A number of different root media, seed containment, and nutrient delivery systems were evaluated and effects on seed germination and growth were evaluated. A number of issues limiting sustained production, such as accumulation of nutrients, uniform water, elevated vapor pressure deficit, and media containment were identified. A concept using pre-planted rooting packs shown to effectively address a number of those issues and is a promising approach for future development as a planting system for microgravity conditions.
doi: 10.2514/6.2011-5263 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2011-5263
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Operational evaluation of VEGGIE food production system in the habitat demonstration unit

2011

G.W. Stutte, G. Newsham, R.C. Morrow, R.M. Wheeler

publication: 41st International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

The 2010 Desert Research and Technology Studies (DRATS) of the VEGGIE Food Production System in the Habitat Demonstration Unit (HDU) Pressurized Excursion Module (PEM) was the first operational evaluation of salad crop production technology in a NASA analog test. A systematic evaluation of rooting media and nutrient delivery systems were evaluated for three lettuce cultivars that have shown promise as candidates for a surface based food production system. The VEGGIE nutrient delivery system worked well, was able to be maintained by multiple operators with a minimum of training, and supported excellent lettuce growth for the duration of the test. A Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) evaluation was performed using ProSan™ as sanitation agent prior to consumption was approved, and the crew was allowed to consume the lettuce grown using the VEGGIE light cap and gravity based nutrient delivery system at the completion of the 14-day DRAT field test. The DRAT field test validated the crew operations; Growth of all lettuce cultivars was excellent. The operational DRAT field testing in the HDU identified light quality issues related to morphology and pigment development that will need to be addressed through additional testing. Feedback from the crew, ground support personnel, and human factors leads was uniformly positive on the psychological value of having the crop production system in the excursion module. A number of areas have been identified for future work, to minimize the “footprint” of the Food Production system through creative use of unused wall and floor space in the unit.
doi: 10.2514/6.2011-5262 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2011-5262
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ADVANCED GREENHOUSE MODULES AND RESEARCH FOR USE WITHIN PLANETARY HABITAT

2011

F.-G. Schroeder,N. Domurath,D. Brohm,D. Schubert

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Rearing of silkworm larva in a closed gas revitalizing plant system

2011

Ling Tong,Hong Liu

publication: Ecological Engineering

Abstract

Plant growing and insect breeding experiments in the CICS (Closed Integrative Cultivating System) were carried out. The CICS was established for collecting experimental data to investigate gas circulation and mass exchange between plants and animals as well as animal growth and nutrient compositions in the Bioregenerative Life Support System. The CICS was 1.4 m high with the base measuring 1.4 m × 0.8 m. In the plant chamber, stem lettuce plants were grown in a staggered manner. Silkworms in five different instars were fed in the animal chamber. Every 4 days, the silkworms that had been in the 5th instar for 3 days and all the silkworm’ excreta were taken out of the system. Meanwhile, the silkworms in the first instar were transferred into the animal chamber. During this process, O2 and CO2 concentrations in the CICS were measured, and the growth and nutrient composition of the silkworms in the system were compared with those of silkworms reared in the open environment. Results showed that O2 and CO2 concentrations in the system were 19.07–20.61% and 0.11–0.35%, respectively. The comparison of growing differences between the silkworms fed in the animal chamber and those in the open environment indicates the insect's biomass increasing rates and bioconversion rates in the CICS were lower than those in the open environment, and the amounts of excreta produced in the animal chamber were larger. Protein content of the SP (Silkworm Powder) produced in the CICS was more than that in the open environment, while fat content of the SP in the CICS was lower than that in the open environment. Calcium, phosphorus and iron contents of the SP produced in the CICS were 139.00 mg calcium/100 g SP, 1.20 mg phosphorous/100 g SP, and 7.95 mg iron/100 g SP. In terms of amino acids, the quality of the SP produced in the CICS was equivalent to that gained in the open environment.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.12.008 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857410003435
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A hazard analysis critical control point plan applied to the Lada vegetable production units ((PU) to ensure the safety of space grown vegetables

2011

Mary Hummerick,Jay Garland,Gail Bingham,Ray Wheeler,Shane Topham,Vladimir Sychev,Igor Podolsky

publication: 41st International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

The Lada Vegetable Production Unit (VPU), flight hardware currently deployed on the Russian module of the International Space Station (ISS), is being used to validate the food safety of fresh “space-grown” crops. The final objective of this project is the development of a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) plan for Lada grown crops to minimize potential microbial risks to the astronauts. Following FDA guidelines for the development of a HACCP plan, the identification of hazards and critical control points associated with the production of consumable crops grown in the Lada VPU and the establishment of preventative procedures to minimize risk were performed through the collection of baseline microbiological data and testing of pre and post harvest sanitization protocols. Microbiological data collected from both plant tissue and hardware (e.g., root modules) returned from a variety of crops grown on ISS and ground based experiments have been done to define normal microbial loads and understand the fate and survival of human associated pathogens in the Lada VPU. Protocols have been tested to determine the effectiveness of a sanitizer approved by the FDA and USDA (Pro-San) to achieve acceptable levels of microbes on VPU surfaces and vegetables. These data have been used to develop the HACCP plan outlined here for crops grown in a VPU designed for a space environment.
doi: 10.2514/6.2011-5277 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2011-5277
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A hazard analysis critical control point plan applied to the Lada vegetable production units (VPU) to ensure the safety of space grown vegetables.

2011

Mary Hummerick,Jay Garland,Gail Bingham,Ray Wheeler,Shane Topham,Vladimir Sychev,Igor Podolsky

publication: 41st International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

The Lada Vegetable Production Unit (VPU), flight hardware currently deployed on the Russian module of the International Space Station (ISS), is being used to validate the food safety of fresh “space-grown” crops. The final objective of this project is the development of a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) plan for Lada grown crops to minimize potential microbial risks to the astronauts. Following FDA guidelines for the development of a HACCP plan, the identification of hazards and critical control points associated with the production of consumable crops grown in the Lada VPU and the establishment of preventative procedures to minimize risk were performed through the collection of baseline microbiological data and testing of pre and post harvest sanitization protocols. Microbiological data collected from both plant tissue and hardware (e.g., root modules) returned from a variety of crops grown on ISS and ground based experiments have been done to define normal microbial loads and understand the fate and survival of human associated pathogens in the Lada VPU. Protocols have been tested to determine the effectiveness of a sanitizer approved by the FDA and USDA (Pro-San) to achieve acceptable levels of microbes on VPU surfaces and vegetables. These data have been used to develop the HACCP plan outlined here for crops grown in a VPU designed for a space environment.
doi: 10.2514/6.2011-5277 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2011-5277
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Insect food for astronauts: gas exchange in silkworms fed on mulberry and lettuce and the nutritional value of these insects for human consumption during deep space flights

2011

L. Tong,X. Yu,H. Liu

publication: Bulletin of entomological research

Abstract

In this study, silkworm moth (Bombyx mori L.) larvae were regarded as an animal protein source for astronauts in the bioregenerative life support system during long-term deep space exploration in the future. They were fed with mulberry and stem lettuce leaves during the first three instars and the last two instars, respectively. In addition, this kind of environmental approach, which utilised inedible biomass of plants to produce animal protein of high quality, can likewise be applied terrestrially to provide food for people living in extreme environments and/or impoverished agro-ecosystems, such as in polar regions, isolated military bases, ships, submarines, etc. Respiration characteristics of the larvae during development under two main physiological conditions, namely eating and not-eating of leaves, were studied. Nutrient compositions of silkworm powder (SP), ground and freeze-dried silkworms on the 3rd day of the 5th instar larvae, including protein, fat, vitamins, minerals and fatty acids, were measured using international standard methods. Silkworms' respiration rates, measured when larvae were eating mulberry leaves, were higher than those of similar larvae that hadn't eaten such leaves. There was a significant difference between silkworms fed on mulberry leaves and those fed on stem lettuce in the 4th and 5th instars (P<0.01). Amounts of CO2 exhaled by the silkworms under the two physiological regimes differed from each other (P<0.01). There was also a significant difference between the amount of O2 inhaled when the insects were under the two physiological statuses (P<0.01). Moreover, silkworms' respiration quotient under the eating regime was larger than when under the not-eating regime. The SP was found to be rich in protein and amino acids in total; 12 essential vitamins, nine minerals and twelve fatty acids were detected. Moreover, 359 kcal could be generated per 100 gram of SP (dry weight).
doi: 10.1017/S0007485311000228 pubmed: 21554801 link: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-entomological-research/article/insect-food-fo...
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Crop selection for advanced life support systems in the ESA MELiSSA program: Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum var. durum)

2012

M. Stasiak,D. Gidzinski,M. Jordan,M. Dixon

publication: Advances in space research

Abstract

As part of an ESA MELiSSA investigation into advanced life support (ALS) candidate crop cultivar selection and growth requirements, the University of Guelph’s Controlled Environment Systems Research Facility (CESRF) conducted a case study on growth and development of four durum wheat cultivars (Triticum turgidum var durum) grown hydroponically under controlled conditions in a sealed environment. Cultivars tested were Canadian developed Avonlea, Commander, Eurostar and Strongfield. There were few fundamental differences in durum quality parameters between hydroponically and field grown wheat, however yields of Eurostar and Strongfield exceeded those of field trials by 41% and 87% respectively.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.03.001 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712001676
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Ethylene reduces plant gas exchange and growth of lettuce grown from seed to harvest under hypobaric and ambient total pressure

2012

Chuanjiu He,Fred T. Davies

publication: Journal of plant physiology

Abstract

Naturally occurring high levels of ethylene can be a problem in spaceflight and controlled environment agriculture (CEA) leading to sterility and irregular plant growth. There are engineering and safety advantages of growing plants under hypobaria (low pressure) for space habitation. The goals of this research were to successfully grow lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. Buttercrunch) in a long-term study from seed to harvest under hypobaric conditions, and to investigate how endogenously produced ethylene affects gas exchange and plant growth from seed germination to harvest under hypobaric and ambient total pressure conditions. Lettuce was grown under two levels of total gas pressure [hypobaric or ambient (25 or 101 kPa)] in a long-term, 32-day study. Significant levels of endogenous ethylene occurred by day-15 causing reductions in photosynthesis, dark-period respiration, and a subsequent decrease in plant growth. Hypobaria did not mitigate the adverse ethylene effects on plant growth. Seed germination was not adversely affected by hypobaria, but was reduced by hypoxia (6 kPa pO(2)). Under hypoxia, seed germination was higher under hypobaria than ambient total pressure. This research shows that lettuce can be grown from seed to harvest under hypobaria (≅25% of normal earth ambient total pressure).
doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2011.11.002 pubmed: 22118875 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176161711004512
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Growth characteristics comparison of lettuce and silkworms in and out of the multibiological life support system

2012

Ling Tong,Dawei Hu,Yuming Fu,Beizhen Xie,Hong Liu

publication: Ecological Engineering

Abstract

To establish bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) on lunar or Mars bases in the future, it is necessary to firstly conduct manned simulation experiments, including several different kinds of creatures on the ground. To provide the basis for establishing the system, a multibiological life support system composed of lettuce, silkworm and algae was set up in this study. Lettuce and silkworms were cultivated in a closed integrated cultivating system (CICS) of integrative experimental system (IES). The conveyor-type cultivation method was implemented, which harvested the largest batch of lettuce and silkworms from the system and carried the smallest batch of them into the system every four days. During this process, the main element contents of lettuce were determined. Biomasses, heights, and crown diameters of lettuce in and out of the system were compared. Biomasses, excrement production rates, and bioconversion rates of silkworms in and out of the system were also studied. Results showed silkworms and lettuce in the IES could grow normally. There were no significant differences of biomass, height, or excrement production rates between creatures (lettuce and silkworms) in the system and those out of the system.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.06.045 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857412002443
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System dynamics and performance factors of a lunar greenhouse prototype bioregenerative life support system

2012

M. Kacira,G.A. Giacomelli,R.L. Patterson,R. Furfaro,P.D. Sadler,G. Boscheri,C. Lobascio,M. Lamantea,R.M. Wheeler,S. Rossignoli

publication: International Symposium on Advanced Technologies and Management Towards Sustainable Greenhouse Ecosystems

Abstract

Future habitation of space, including lunar outposts will require special systems capable of performing important tasks such as revitalizing atmosphere (generate oxygen and fix carbon dioxide), purifying water (e.g., via plant transpiration), and growing human food. Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS) represent a solution to the problem of sustaining human existence in space. The lunar greenhouse (LGH) prototype project funded by NASA Steckler Phase I Space Grant supported collaboration from a multidisciplinary and multinational team to evaluate the scientific and technical merit and feasibility of a lunar greenhouse prototype for BLSS. The LGH system was constructed to be light-weight, collapsible for transport, autonomous for deployment, modular for expansion, with a hydroponic multi-cropping system that could produce NASA candidate crops such as lettuce, strawberry, sweet potato, and tomato. The system was instrumented to continuously monitor all primary resource inputs (feed water, nutrient solution, CO2, labor, and energy) as well as desired outputs (biomass, condensed water, oxygen generated). This paper reports results of a nine-month research with four repeated closure experiments on production outputs and resource inputs of the LGH system. The Phase I project concluded that the LGH system was capable of producing 2.26±0.33 kg day-1 biomass, 21.4±1.85 kg day-1 of condensed water, and consuming 0.07±0.11 kg day-1 fertilizer, 25.7±3.31 kg day-1 input water, 100.3 kWh day-1 (361.1 MJ day-1) as well as 35.9 min day-1 labor use.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2012.952.73 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/952/952_73.htm
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Ion-Specific nutrient management in closed systems: the necessity for ion-selective sensors in terrestrial and space-based agriculture and water management systems

2012

Matthew Bamsey,Thomas Graham,Cody Thompson,Alain Berinstain,Alan Scott,Michael Dixon

publication: Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)

Abstract

The ability to monitor and control plant nutrient ions in fertigation solutions, on an ion-specific basis, is critical to the future of controlled environment agriculture crop production, be it in traditional terrestrial settings (e.g., greenhouse crop production) or as a component of bioregenerative life support systems for long duration space exploration. Several technologies are currently available that can provide the required measurement of ion-specific activities in solution. The greenhouse sector has invested in research examining the potential of a number of these technologies to meet the industry's demanding requirements, and although no ideal solution yet exists for on-line measurement, growers do utilize technologies such as high-performance liquid chromatography to provide off-line measurements. An analogous situation exists on the International Space Station where, technological solutions are sought, but currently on-orbit water quality monitoring is considerably restricted. This paper examines the specific advantages that on-line ion-selective sensors could provide to plant production systems both terrestrially and when utilized in space-based biological life support systems and how similar technologies could be applied to nominal on-orbit water quality monitoring. A historical development and technical review of the various ion-selective monitoring technologies is provided.
doi: 10.3390/s121013349 pubmed: 23201999 link: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/12/10/13349
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Atmospheric Pressure Requirement of Bumblebees (Bombus impatiens) as Pollinators of Lunar or Martian Greenhouse Grown Food

2012

E. Nardone, P.G. Kevan, M. Stasiak, M. Dixon

publication: Gravitational and space biology bulletin

Abstract

Long-term space exploration missions to the Moon or Mars will require food production facilities to sustain human life. Considering that the atmospheric pressure on the Moon and Mars is much less than that on Earth, scientists have been studying plant production in controlled environments with reduced pressures in order to better understand effects on growth and development. Some plants have been found to grow successfully in environments with pressures as low as 10kPa. However, growth of several candidate food species such as tomatoes, tomatillo, squash, pumpkins, melons, sunflower, and canola are complicated by the requirement of insect pollinators for successful crop production. Here we show that bumblebees, Bombus impatiens, could function as efficient pollinators in environments with total atmospheric pressures as low as 50kPa. We found that when bumblebees were exposed to an environment of 50kPa or higher, they maintained foraging activity levels and a foraging efficiency similar to that exhibited under ambient conditions. However, their activity levels and efficiency were decreased when exposed to an environment lower than 50kPa. In these experiments, the partial pressure of oxygen was reduced in proportion to the total pressure. When oxygen was returned to an ambient partial pressure of 20kPa at low total pressures, activity improved. Our results demonstrate that bumblebees could function well as pollinators in environments with total atmospheric pressure of 50kPa or higher, and activity improves at lower levels as long as oxygen levels are adequate. This study is a first step in determining the atmospheric requirements for plant-pollinator interactions in a space station, Moon, or Mars greenhouse, which may be essential for long-term space exploration.
link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter-Kevan-2/publication/257765778_Atmospheric_Pressure_Req...
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Transcriptional and metabolic insights into the differential physiological responses of Arabidopsis to optimal and supra-optimal atmospheric CO2

2012

F. Kaplan, W. Zhao, J.T. Richards, R.M. Wheeler, C.L. Guy, L.H. Levine

publication: PloS one

Abstract

In tightly closed human habitats such as space stations, locations near volcano vents and closed culture vessels, atmospheric CO(2) concentration may be 10 to 20 times greater than Earth's current ambient levels. It is known that super-elevated (SE) CO(2) (>1,200 µmol mol(-1)) induces physiological responses different from that of moderately elevated CO(2) (up to 1,200 µmol mol(-1)), but little is known about the molecular responses of plants to supra-optimal [CO(2)].
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043583 pubmed: 22916280 link: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0043583
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Selection and hydroponic growth of potato cultivars for bioregenerative life support systems

2012

K. Molders,M. Quinet,J. Decat,B. Secco,E. Dulière,S. Pieters,T. van der Kooij,S. Lutts,D. Van Der Straeten

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

As part of the ESA-funded MELiSSA program, Ghent University and the Université catholique de Louvain investigated the suitability, growth and development of four potato cultivars in hydroponic culture under controlled conditions with the aim to incorporate such cultivation system in an Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS). Potato plants can fulfill three major functions in an ECLSS in space missions: (a) fixation of CO2 and production of O2, (b) production of tubers for human nutrition and (c) production of clean water after condensation of the water vapor released from the plants by transpiration. Four cultivars (Annabelle, Bintje, Desiree and Innovator) were selected and grown hydroponically in nutrient film technique (NFT) gullies in a growth chamber under controlled conditions. The plant growth parameters, tuber harvest parameters and results of tuber nutritional analysis of the four cultivars were compared. The four potato cultivars grew well and all produced tubers. The growth period lasted 127 days for all cultivars except for Desiree which needed 145 days. Annabelle (1.45 kg/m2) and Bintje (1.355 kg/m2) were the best performing of the four cultivars. They also produced two times more tubers than Desiree and Innovator. Innovator produced the biggest tubers (20.95 g/tuber) and Desiree the smallest (7.67 g/tuber). The size of Annabelle and Bintje potatoes were intermediate. Bintje plants produced the highest total biomass in term of DW. The highest non-edible biomass was produced by Desiree, which showed both the highest shoot and root DW. The manual length and width measurements were also used to predict the total tuber mass. The energy values of the tubers remained in the range of the 2010 USDA and Souci-Fachmann-Kraut food composition databases. The amount of Ca determined was slightly reduced compared to the USDA value, but close to the Souci-Fachmann-Kraut value. The concentration of Cu, Zn and P were high compared to both databases.
Clearly, the yields for the four cultivars used in this study can still be significantly increased. Identification of optimal growth conditions (a.o. nutrient solution management, light conditions) will be the subject of further research.

doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.03.025 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712002232
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Characteristics of the soil-like substrates produced with a novel technique combining aerobic fermentation and earthworm treatment

2012

Wenli Kang,Wenting He,Leyuan Li,Hong Liu

publication: Advances in Space research

Abstract

The soil-like substrate (SLS) technique is key for improving the closure of bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) by recycling the inedible biomass of higher plants. In this study, a novel SLS technique (NSLST) was proposed: aerobic fermentations at 35 °C for 1 day, then 60 °C for 6 days, finally 30 °C for 3 days, followed by earthworm treatment for 70 days. Comparing with the original SLS technique (OSLST), its process cycle was 13 days shorter, and the dry weight loss rate (81.1%) was improved by 24.77%. The cellulose and lignin degradation rates were 96.6% and 94.6%. The concentrations of available N, P and K in mature SLS were respectively 776.1 mg/L, 348.0 mg/L and 7943.0 mg/L. Low CH4 and NH3 production was observed, but no accumulation. According to the seed germination test, the SLSs were feasible for plant growth. This investigation will provide a preliminary foundation for BLSS design.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.06.038 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712004474
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Radish (Raphanus sativa L. cv. Cherry Bomb II) growth, net carbon exchange rated, and transpiration at decreased atmospheric pressure and / or oxygen

2012

C.A. Wehkamp, M. Stasiak, J. Lawson, N. Yorio, G. Stutte, J. Richards, R. Wheeler, M. Dixon

publication: Gravitational and Space Biology

Abstract

To simplify engineering requirements for plant growth structures on the Moon or Mars, lower pressures are desirable to reduce mass and decrease atmospheric leakage. In order to establish the effect of reduced pressure and reduced oxygen on carbon assimilation, dark period respiration, transpiration, and plant growth, radishes (Raphanus sativa L. cv. Cherry Bomb II) were grown at 98 (ambient pressure), 66 (2/3 atm), 33 (1/3 atm), and 10 (1/10 atm) kPa total pressures with oxygen partial pressures of 20, 14, 7, and 2 kPa for 21 days. All plants were grown in rockwool using recirculating nutrient film technique hydroponics. Analysis of growth showed no significant difference among the 98, 66, 33, and 10 kPa total pressure environments when the oxygen partial pressure was ≥ 7 kPa, but a significant reduction was observed when the oxygen partial pressure was dropped to 2 kPa, regardless of the total pressure. Net carbon exchange rate (NCER) and transpiration showed a similar pattern, with no significant effect with pressure treatments. Only the reduced oxygen partial pressure treatment of 2 kPa resulted in significant reductions in NCER and transpiration. Results indicate that pressure has little effect on radish productivity as long as oxygen levels are maintained at or above 7 kPa.
link: https://cordis.europa.eu/docs/results/272/272520/final1-radish-2012.pdf
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Cultivation of three cruciferous vegetables in a confined environment decreases microbial burden

2012

Yuming Fu,Hong Liu

publication: Ecological Engineering

Abstract

Protection of human subjects from microbial contaminants is an important consideration in confined condition. The aim of this study was to investigate whether cruciferous vegetable cultivation will cause microbial contamination of confined living environment. Three cruciferous vegetables including pakchoi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis), lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. longifolia) and Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra), were separately hydroponically cultivated in encapsulated systems where Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were used to mimic human. In the control group, SD rats were fed in a parallel encapsulated apparatus without plant cultivation. Surface microbes in all groups were sampled 20 days after the apparatuses were sealed. Microbial burden and community of the samples were analyzed using culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. The results demonstrated that compared with control group, the cultivation of the three cruciferous vegetables effectively decreased microbial burden in the confined system containing rats, among which lettuce displayed the strongest bacteriostasis. PCR-DGGE analysis showed that the microbial community structure varied with the cultivation of three vegetables in the closed system. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that some microbial species were inhibited by the vegetables, including opportunistic human pathogenic bacteria, namely Staphylococcus epidermi, Gemella haemolysans and Enterobacter aerogenes. Overall, the study indicates that the cultivation of pakchoi, lettuce or Chinese kale is effective to reduce microbial burden, and thus the suitable vegetable cultivation in confined environment would not cause microbial contamination, instead, it would reduce microbial health risk.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.009 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857412001279
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Soybean cultivar selection for Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS) – Theoretical selection

2012

Veronica De Micco,Roberta Buonomo,Roberta Paradiso,Stefania De Pascale,Giovanna Aronne

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

The development of plant-based Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS) is a requirement for the realization of long-duration exploratory-class manned missions in so far as they help fulfilling astronauts’ needs including nutritional demands, air regeneration and psychological support.
The program ESA – MELiSSA (European Space Agency – Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative) aims to conceive an artificial bioregenerative ecosystem based on both microorganisms and higher plants. Soybean is one of the four crops studied within this program as a candidate for cultivation in forthcoming BLSS.
Within this project, the aim of this study was to develop a methodology for the selection of soybean candidate cultivars for BLSS. Our scope was to identify an objective and repeatable procedure to choose the best cultivar at each time, overcoming the variability of the market supply. This purpose was pursued with an approach based on a two-steps procedure: (a) the development of an objective criterion for the selection of the most suitable soybean cultivars (cultivated varieties) based on theoretical considerations and (b) the behaviour evaluation of the 4 best cultivars with a cultivation trial in a controlled environment.
In this paper, we report the first phase of the selection procedure. We started with a literature survey to look for data about environmental needs, potential yields and nutritional traits of soybean cultivars already tested in cultivation trials (disregarding Gene Modified Organisms). Afterwards, a preliminary screening based on information about the main European companies and the most commercialized cultivars, as well as on the criteria suggested by ESA, allowed to select 93 cultivars among the 297 admitted in EU. Finally, an algorithm, based on the relevance of each considered characteristic, was created to attribute a score to each cultivar and to rank it for the identification of the best cultivars for subsequent cultivation trials.

doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.02.022 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712001366
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Design and optimization of photo bioreactor for O2 regulation and control by system dynamics and computer simulation

2012

D. Hu, Ming Li, Rui Zhou, Yi Sun

publication: Bioresource technology

Abstract

In this paper, a valid kinetic model of photo bioreactor (PBR) used for highly-effective cultivation of blue algae, Spirulina platensis, was developed for fully describing the dynamic characteristics of O(2) concentration, then a closed-loop PBR with Linear-Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) servo controller was established and optimized via digital simulation and dynamic response optimization, and the effectiveness of the closed-loop PBR was further tested and accredited by real-time simulation. The result showed that the closed-loop PBR could regulate and control the O(2) concentration in its gas phase according to the reference with desired dynamic response performance, hence microalgae with unique characteristic could be selected as a powerful tool for O(2) regulation and control whenever O(2) concentration in Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS) deviates from the nominal level in emergencies, and greatly enhance safety and reliability of BLSS on space and ground missions.
doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.11.049 pubmed: 22153599 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852411016609
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Soybean cultivar selection for Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSSs) – Hydroponic cultivation

2012

R. Paradiso,R. Buonomo,V. De Micco,G. Aronne,M. Palermo,G. Barbieri,S. De Pascale

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Four soybean cultivars (‘Atlantic’, ‘Cresir’, ‘Pr91m10’ and ‘Regir’), selected through a theoretical procedure as suitable for cultivation in BLSS, were evaluated in terms of growth and production. Germination percentage and Mean Germination Time (MGT) were measured. Plants were cultivated in a growth chamber equipped with a recirculating hydroponic system (Nutrient Film Technique). Cultivation was performed under controlled environmental conditions (12 h photoperiod, light intensity 350 μmol m−2 s−1, temperature regime 26/20 °C light/dark, relative humidity 65–75%). Fertigation was performed with a standard Hoagland solution, modified for soybean specific requirements, and EC and pH were kept at 2.0 dS m−1 and 5.5 respectively.
The percentage of germination was high (from 86.9% in ‘Cresir’ to 96.8% in ‘Regir’)and the MGT was similar for all the cultivars (4.3 days). The growing cycle lasted from 114 in ‘Cresir’ to 133 days on average in the other cultivars. Differences in plant size were recorded, with ‘Pr91m10’ plants being the shortest (58 vs 106 cm). Cultivars did not differ significantly in seed yield (12 g plant−1) and in non edible biomass (waste), water consumption and biomass conversion efficiency (water, radiation and acid use indexes). ‘Pr91m10’ showed the highest protein content in the seeds (35.6% vs 33.3% on average in the other cultivars).
Results from the cultivation experiment showed good performances of the four cultivars in hydroponics. The overall analysis suggests that ‘Pr91m10’ could be the best candidate for the cultivation in a BLSS, coupling the small plant size and the good yield with high resource use efficiency and good seed quality.

doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.07.025 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712005017
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The fluxes of carbon, nitrogen and water in the multibiological life support system

2012

Ling Tong,Ming Li,Enzhu Hu,Yuming Fu,Beizhen Xie,Hong Liu

publication: Ecological Engineering

Abstract

To establish bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) on lunar or mars bases, firstly, it is necessary to conduct BLSS experiments including humans and various kinds of creatures on the ground. Carbon and nitrogen balances as well as water cycle are the important subjects that need to be studied. To provide basis for establishing a manned BLSS, a multibiological life support system composed of lettuce, silkworm and algae was set up in this study to carry out gas exchange investigation between humans and the system. During this process, the production rate and quality of condensate, substance flows of lettuce, silkworm and algae in and out of the system as well as carbon and nitrogen contents of these substances were studied. Results showed water was completely cycled in the system and condensate quality was relatively good, certain amounts of carbon and nitrogen were accumulated in the system and existed in the form of microorganisms.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.01.023 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857412000456
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Modified energy cascade model adapted for a multicrop Lunar greenhouse prototype Adv

2012

G. Boscheri, M. Kacira, L. Patterson, G. Giacomelli, P. Sadler, R. Furfaro, C. Lobascio, M. Lamantea, L. Grizzaffi

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Models are required to accurately predict mass and energy balances in a bioregenerative life support system. A modified energy cascade model was used to predict outputs of a multi-crop (tomatoes, potatoes, lettuce and strawberries) Lunar greenhouse prototype. The model performance was evaluated against measured data obtained from several system closure experiments. The model predictions corresponded well to those obtained from experimental measurements for the overall system closure test period (five months), especially for biomass produced (0.7% underestimated), water consumption (0.3% overestimated) and condensate production (0.5% overestimated). However, the model was less accurate when the results were compared with data obtained from a shorter experimental time period, with 31%, 48% and 51% error for biomass uptake, water consumption, and condensate production, respectively, which were obtained under more complex crop production patterns (e.g. tall tomato plants covering part of the lettuce production zones). These results, together with a model sensitivity analysis highlighted the necessity of periodic characterization of the environmental parameters (e.g. light levels, air leakage) in the Lunar greenhouse.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.05.025 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712003705
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Construction of closed integrative system for gases robust stabilization employing microalgae peculiarity and computer experiment

2012

Dawei Hu,Rui Zhou,Yi Sun,Ling Tong,Ming Li,Houkai Zhang

publication: Ecological Engineering

Abstract

Bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) is an artificial ecosystem providing life support for crewmen on space or ground mission in terms of biological unit components. It is critically important to maintain gases (O2 and CO2) concentrations in the system to robustly stabilize at nominal levels, nevertheless BLSS is a complex system, its control law could not be sufficiently and profoundly investigated merely by traditional approaches, i.e., prototype experiment and open-loop control. In our research, a closed integrative system (CIS) composed of lettuce, silkworm and microalgae was constructed as a specific prototype of BLSS, studying the gases dynamics in system and their closed-loop regulation and control adopting microalgae as a bioregenerative tool in combination with computer simulation. Firstly, a precise kinetic model of CIS was developed for fully describing the dynamic characteristics of gases concentrations by means of system dynamics and artificial neural network based on relevant ecological mechanisms and experimental data. Secondly, a closed-loop CIS with Linear-Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) servo controller was established depended on microalgae peculiarity, such as high growth rate, metabolism flexibility, controllability, and so on. Thirdly, the closed-loop CIS was optimized via predetermined gases dynamic responses to control inputs and digital simulation. Finally, the effectiveness of the closed-loop CIS was fully tested and accredited by real-time simulation. The result showed that the closed-loop CIS could effectively regulate the light intensity and aerating rate to stimulate or inhibit the growth of microalgae based on real-time measurements of gases concentrations, and indirectly control them to come back to their nominal levels with desired dynamic response performances after deviation from originally equilibrium points. Therefore, the closed-loop control of microalgae might greatly enhance the safety and reliability of BLSS operation.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.001 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092585741200119X
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Qualitative analysis of the stability of a continuous vermicomposting system

2012

Enzhu Hu,Hong Liu

publication: Bioresource technology

Abstract

A mathematical model was established to describe ecological relationships in a continuous vermicomposting system. The distributions of organic matter, microbes and earthworms on non-dimensional specific growth rates were simulated. The range of specific growth rates were visualized utilizing three-dimensional reconstruction technology. The stability of a vermicomposting system was not influenced by the initial concentrations of microbes and earthworms, only their species. The coordinates of the stable point depended on the dilution rate and initial amount of organic matter. The method described could be help for establishing a stable continuous vermicomposting system.
doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.09.115 pubmed: 23127841 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852412014770
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The effect of plant cultivar, growth media, harvest method and post harvest treatment on the microbiology of edible crops

2012

M.P. Hummerick, J. Gates, B.-T. Nguyen, G.D. buge, R.M. Wheeler

publication: 42nd International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Systems for the growth of crops in closed environments are being developed and tested for potential use in space to provide a source of fresh food. Plant growth conditions, growth media composition and harvest methods can have an effect on the microbial population of the plant, and therefore should be considered along with the optimization of plant growth and yields to ensure a safe and palatable food crop. This work examined the effect of plant cultivar, growth medium, and harvest method on plant microbial populations. Twelve varieties of leafy greens and herbs were grown in a mixture of Fafard #2 and Arcillite using the “pillow” root containment system currently being considered for the VEGGIE plant growth unit developed by Orbitec. In addition, Sierra and Outredgeous lettuce varieties were grown in three different mixtures (Fafard #2, Arcillite, and Perlite/Vermiculite). The plants were analyzed for microbial density. Two harvest methods, “multiple cuttings” and single harvestwere also compared in separate experiments. Red leaf lettuce and mizuna were grown in pots in a Biomass Production System for Education (BPSe) chamber and harvested every two weeks by either method. Another set of experiments was performed using the rooting pillows to grow five varieties of leafy greens and cut harvest at different time intervals. Radishes were harvested and replanted at two-week intervals. Results indicate up toa3 log" difference in microbial counts between some varieties of plants. Lettuce grown in arcillite rooting medium resulted in an approximately 2 log'’ lower count than those grown in the other mixtures. Harvest method and frequency had less impact on microbial counts only showing a significant increase in one variety of plant. Post harvest methods to decrease the bacterial counts on edible crops were investigated in these experiments.
doi: 10.2514/6.2012-3506 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2012-3506
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Development and evaluation of bioregenerative menus for Mars habitat missions

2012

Maya R. Cooper,Patricia Catauro,Michele Perchonok

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

Two 10-day menus were developed in preparation for a Mars habitat mission. The first was built on the assumption, as in previous menu development efforts for closed ecological systems, that the food system would be vegetarian, whereas the second menu introduced shelf-stable, prepackaged meat and entrée items from the current International Space Station (ISS) food system. Both menus delivered an average of 3000 cal daily but the macronutrient proportions resulted in an excess of carbohydrates and dietary fiber per mission nutritional recommendations. Generally, the individual recipes comprising both menus were deemed acceptable by internal sensory panel (average overall acceptability=7.4). The incorporation of existing ISS entrée items did not have a significant effect on the acceptability of the menus. In a final comparison, the food system upmass, or the amount of food that is shipped from the Earth, increased by 297 kg with the addition of prepackaged entrées to the menu. However, the addition of the shipped massed was counterbalanced by a 864 kg reduction in required crops. A further comparison of the crew time required for meal preparation and farming, food system power requirements, and food processing equipment mass is recommended to definitively distinguish the menus.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2012.08.035 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576512003451
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Beyond Earth: Designing root zone environments for reduced gravity conditions

2012

Scott B. Jones,Dani Or,Robert Heinse,Markus Tuller

publication: Vadose Zone Journal

Abstract

Fluid management in plant root zones is critical for long duration space missions including lunar- or Martian-based missions, but key aspects of design and delivery of fluids under these conditions are poorly understood due to limited experimental opportunities. We review theoretical and experimental concepts for advancing understanding of fluid-porous media interactions to improve design and management of plant-based life support systems for reduced gravity environments. In situ utilization of native lunar and Martian granular materials for plant-growth media requires reliable characterization of media physical and hydraulic properties and processes. A key aspect is the enhanced effects of capillarity in reduced gravity resulting in an array of micro- and macroscale changes in fluid phase organization relative to conditions on Earth that may affect mass fluxes to plant roots and potentially result in excess water and hypoxia. Increasing the medium particle diameter above 1 mm and narrowing the distribution of particles, and thus pore sizes, may counter reduced gravity effects. Approaches used in previous microgravity systems involving sensor-based active water management assuming prescribed optimal set points (i.e., water potential) may fail in reduced gravity due to dynamic pore space alterations arising from air- or liquid-phase entrapment and root growth in a restricted volume that may alter the porous medium characteristics on which water management is often based. For example, about a 10% reduction in volumetric pore space was observed following rice (Oryza sativa L.) root growth, which could change a well-aerated root zone into an anoxic environment if not accounted for. Numerical modeling of plant transpiration and irrigation using volumetrically controlled water content under different gravity environments revealed similar hydraulic responses in fine-textured porous media typically unsuitable for plant growth in greenhouses. Volumetric water content–based management of plant root environments appears to be a safer approach than other methods discussed here.
doi: 10.2136/vzj2011.0081 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/vzj2011.0081
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Mission to Mars: Food production and processing for the final frontier

2012

M.H. Perchonok, M.R. Cooper, P.M. Catauro

publication: Annual Review of Food Science and Technology

Abstract

The food systems of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have evolved tremendously since the early manned spaceflights of the 1960s. To date, NASA's mission focus has been limited to exploration of low Earth orbit (LEO), and the agency's prepackaged food systems have been adequate to enable success of their parent programs. With NASA's mission focus increasing to achieve manned space exploration of the Martian surface, the agency is considering a significant departure from the prepackaged food systems of current and past space programs. NASA's Advanced Food Technology (AFT) project is presently investigating the introduction of a bioregenerative food system to support long duration habitat missions to the Martian surface. A bioregenerative food system is expected to impart less of a burden on critical mission resources, such as mass and volume, than a prepackaged, shelf-stable system. This review provides an introduction to past and present spaceflight food systems, and provides a broad examination of the research conducted to date to enable crop production and food processing on the Martian surface.
doi: 10.1146/annurev-food-022811-101222 link: https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-food-022811-101222
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Plant mineral nutrition, gas exchange and photosynthesis in space: A review

2013

S.A. Wolff,L.H. Coelho,M. Zabrodina,E. Brinckmann,A.-I. Kittang

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Successful growth and development of higher plants in space rely on adequate availability and uptake of water and nutrients, and efficient energy distribution through photosynthesis and gas exchange. In the present review, literature has been reviewed to assemble the relevant knowledge within space plant research for future planetary missions. Focus has been on fractional gravity, space radiation, magnetic fields and ultimately a combined effect of these factors on gas exchange, photosynthesis and transport of water and solutes.
Reduced gravity prevents buoyancy driven thermal convection in the physical environment around the plant and alters transport and exchange of gases and liquids between the plant and its surroundings. In space experiments, indications of root zone hypoxia have frequently been reported, but studies on the influences of the space environment on plant nutrition and water transport are limited or inconclusive. Some studies indicate that uptake of potassium is elevated when plants are grown under microgravity conditions.
Based on the current knowledge, gas exchange, metabolism and photosynthesis seem to work properly in space when plants are provided with a well stirred atmosphere and grown at moderate light levels. Effects of space radiation on plant metabolism, however, have not been studied so far in orbit. Ground experiments indicated that shielding from the Earth’s magnetic field alters plant gas exchange and metabolism, though more studies are required to understand the effects of magnetic fields on plant growth.
It has been shown that plants can grow and reproduce in the space environment and adapt to space conditions. However, the influences of the space environment may result in a long term effect over multiple generations or have an impact on the plants’ role as food and part of a regenerative life support system. Suggestions for future plant biology research in space are discussed.

doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.09.024 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712005960
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Chlorella vulgaris culture as a regulator of CO2 in a bioregenerative life support system

2013

M.D.Hu Li, H. Liu, E. Hu, B. Xie, L. Tong

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

It is the primary task for a bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) to maintain the stable concentrations of CO2 and O2. However, these concentrations could fluctuate based on various factors, such as the imbalance between respiration/assimilation quotients of the heterotrophic and autotrophic components. They can even be out of balance through catastrophic failure of higher plants in the emergency conditions. In this study, the feasibility of using unicellular Chlorella vulgaris of typically rapid growth as both “compensatory system” and “regulator” to control the balance of CO2 and O2 was analyzed in a closed ecosystem. For this purpose, a small closed ecosystem called integrative experimental system (IES) was established in our laboratory where we have been conducting multi-biological life support system experiments (MLSSE). The IES consists of a closed integrative cultivating system (CICS) and a plate photo-bioreactor. Four volunteers participated in the study for gas exchange by periodical breathing through a tube connected with the CICS. The plate photo-bioreactor was used to cultivate C. vulgaris. Results showed that the culture of C. vulgaris could be used in a situation of catastrophic failure of higher plant under the emergencies. And the productivity could recover itself to the original state in 3 to 5 days to protect the system till the higher plant was renewed. Besides, C. vulgaris could grow well and the productivity could be affected by the light intensity which could help to keep the balance of CO2 and O2 in the IES efficiently. Thus, C. vulgaris could be included in the design of a BLSS as a “compensatory system” in the emergency contingency and a “regulator” during the normal maintenance.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2013.04.014 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117713002263
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A high-performance ground-based prototype of horn-type sequential vegetable production facility for life support system in space

2013

Yuming Fu,Hui Liu,Lingzhi Shao,Minjuan Wang,Yu A. Berkovich,A.N. Erokhin,Hong Liu

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Vegetable cultivation plays a crucial role in dietary supplements and psychosocial benefits of the crew during manned space flight. Here we developed a ground-based prototype of horn-type sequential vegetable production facility, named Horn-type Producer (HTP), which was capable of simulating the microgravity effect and the continuous cultivation of leaf–vegetables on root modules. The growth chamber of the facility had a volume of 0.12 m3, characterized by a three-stage space expansion with plant growth. The planting surface of 0.154 m2 was comprised of six ring-shaped root modules with a fibrous ion-exchange resin substrate. Root modules were fastened to a central porous tube supplying water, and moved forward with plant growth. The total illuminated crop area of 0.567 m2 was provided by a combination of red and white light emitting diodes on the internal surfaces. In tests with a 24-h photoperiod, the productivity of the HTP at 0.3 kW for lettuce achieved 254.3 g eatable biomass per week. Long-term operation of the HTP did not alter vegetable nutrition composition to any great extent. Furthermore, the efficiency of the HTP, based on the Q-criterion, was 7 × 10−4 g2 m−3 J−1. These results show that the HTP exhibited high productivity, stable quality, and good efficiency in the process of planting lettuce, indicative of an interesting design for space vegetable production.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2013.03.020 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117713001737
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Selection and hydroponic growth of bread wheat cultivars for bioregenerative life support systems

2013

V. Page,U. Feller

publication: Advances in space research

Abstract

As part of the ESA-funded MELiSSA program, the suitability, the growth and the development of four bread wheat cultivars were investigated in hydroponic culture with the aim to incorporate such a cultivation system in an Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS). Wheat plants can fulfill three major functions in space: (a) fixation of CO2 and production of O2, (b) production of grains for human nutrition and (c) production of cleaned water after condensation of the water vapor released from the plants by transpiration. Four spring wheat cultivars (Aletsch, Fiorina, Greina and CH Rubli) were grown hydroponically and compared with respect to growth and grain maturation properties. The height of the plants, the culture duration from germination to harvest, the quantity of water used, the number of fertile and non-fertile tillers as well as the quantity and quality of the grains harvested were considered. Mature grains could be harvested after around 160 days depending on the varieties. It became evident that the nutrient supply is crucial in this context and strongly affects leaf senescence and grain maturation. After a first experiment, the culture conditions were improved for the second experiment (stepwise decrease of EC after flowering, pH adjusted twice a week, less plants per m2) leading to a more favorable harvest (higher grain yield and harvest index). Considerably less green tillers without mature grains were present at harvest time in experiment 2 than in experiment 1. The harvest index for dry matter (including roots) ranged from 0.13 to 0.35 in experiment 1 and from 0.23 to 0.41 in experiment 2 with modified culture conditions. The thousand-grain weight for the four varieties ranged from 30.4 to 36.7 g in experiment 1 and from 33.2 to 39.1 g in experiment 2, while market samples were in the range of 39.4–46.9 g. Calcium levels in grains of the hydroponically grown wheat were similar to those from field-grown wheat, while potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, copper, manganese and nickel levels tended to be higher in the grains of experimental plants. It remains a challenge for future experiments to further adapt the nutrient supply in order to improve senescence of vegetative plant parts, harvest index and the composition of bread wheat grains.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2013.03.027 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117713001804
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Feasibility of feeding yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) in bioregenerative life support systems as a source of animal protein for humans

2013

LeYuan Li,ZhiRuo Zhao,Hong Liu

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

In bioregenerative life support systems, using inedible plant biomass to feed animals can provide animal protein for astronauts, while at the same time treating with wastes so as to increase the degree of system closure. In this study, the potential of yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.) as an animal candidate in the system was analyzed. The feasibility of feeding T. molitor with inedible parts of wheat and vegetable was studied. To improve the feed quality of wheat straw, three methods of fermentation were tested. A feeding regime was designed to contain a proper proportion of bran, straw and old leaves. The results showed that T. molitor larvae fed on the plant waste diets grew healthily, their fresh and dry weight reached 56.15% and 46.76% of the larvae fed on a conventional diet (control), respectively. The economic coefficient of the larvae was 16.07%, which was 88.05% of the control. The protein and fat contents of the larvae were 76.14% and 6.44% on dry weigh basis, respectively. Through the processes of facultative anaerobic fermentation and larval consumption, the straw lost about 47.79% of the initial dry weight, and its lignocellulose had a degradation of about 45.74%. Wheat germination test indicated that the frass of T. molitor needs a certain treatment before the addition to the cultivation substrate.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2012.03.012 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576512000847
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Plant atrium system for food production in NASA’s Deep Space Habitat tests

2013

G.D. Massa, M. Simpson, R.M. Wheeler, G. Newsham, G.W. Stutte

publication: 43rd International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

In preparation for future human exploration missions to space, NASA evaluates habitat concepts to assess integration issues, power requirements, crew operations, technology, and system performance. The concept of a Food Production System utilizes fresh foods, such as vegetables and small fruits, harvested on a continuous basis, to improve the crew’s diet and quality of life. The system would need to fit conveniently into the habitat and not interfere with other components or operations. To test this concept, a plant growing “atrium” was designed to surround the lift between the lower and upper modules of the Deep Space Habitat and deployed at NASA Desert Research and Technology Studies (DRATS) test site in 2011 and at NASA Johnson Space Center in 2012. With this approach, un-utilized volume provided an area for vegetable growth. For the 2011 test, mizuna, lettuce, basil, radish and sweetpotato plants were grown in trays using commercially available red / blue LED light fixtures. Seedlings were transplanted into the atrium and cared for by the crew. Plants were then harvested two weeks later following completion of the test. In 2012, mizuna, lettuce, and radish plants were grown similarly but under flat panel banks of white LEDs. In 2012, the crew went through plant harvesting, inclu radishes, which were then consumed. Each test demonstrated successful production of vegetables within a functional hab module. The round red / blue LEDs for the 2011 test lighting cast a purple light in the hab, and were less uniformly distributed over the plant trays. The white LED panels provided broad spectrum light with more uniform distribution. Post-test questionnaires showed that the crew enjoyed tending and consuming the plants and that the white LED light in 2012 provided welcome extra light for the main hab area.
doi: 10.2514/6.2013-3359 link: https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2013-3359
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Preliminary species and media selection for the Veggie space hardware

2013

G. Massa, G. Newsham, M.E. Hummerick, J.L. Caro, G.W. Stutte, R.C. Morrow, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Gravitational and Space Research

Abstract

Plants will be an important component of off-Earth life support systems for food production and atmosphere recycling. “Veggie” is a small vegetable production unit designed for space flight, with a passive water delivery system. Plants can be grown in Veggie using small bags with a wicking surface containing media and fertilizer, i.e., pillows. Pillows planted with seeds can be placed on the wicking surface of the Veggie reservoir and water will wick throughout the media. Multiple small salad and herb species were grown in Veggie analog conditions using both commercial peat-based media and arcillite. Biometric measurements and microbial loads were assessed. Some species grew better in a particular media, but no general trends were apparent. Lettuce plants grew best in the blends of the peat-based and arcillite media. Microbial counts were lower on plants grown in arcillite. Four media types (peat-based mix, arcillite, and blends of the two) were tested in the rooting pillows; tests included Chinese cabbage, Swiss chard, lettuce, snow pea, and radish. Most species grew best in blends of the commercial mix and arcillite. Edible biomass production varied from 3.5-8 grams dry mass/m²/day with lettuce having the lowest biomass and Chinese cabbage highest. Radish plants showed an increasing percentage of partitioning to edible roots with increasing arcillite in the media. Pillows appear to offer a simple, effective strategy for containing rooting media and avoiding free water while growing plants in the Veggie hardware.
doi: 10.2478/gsr-2013-0008 link: https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/gsr-2013-0008
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Effect of salt stress on growth and physiology in amaranth and lettuce: Implications for bioregenerative life support system

2013

Lifeng Qin,Shuangsheng Guo,Weidang Ai,Yongkang Tang,Quanyong Cheng,Guang Chen

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Growing plants can be used to clean waste water in bioregenerative life support system (BLSS). However, NaCl contained in the human urine always restricts plant growth and further reduces the degree of mass cycle closure of the system (i.e. salt stress). This work determined the effect of NaCl stress on physiological characteristics of plants for the life support system. Amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L. var. Huahong) and leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. Luoma) were cultivated at nutrient solutions with different NaCl contents (0, 1000, 5000 and 10,000 ppm, respectively) for 10 to 18 days after planted in the Controlled Ecological Life Support System Experimental Facility in China. Results showed that the two plants have different responses to the salt stress. The amaranth showed higher salt-tolerance with NaCl stress. If NaCl content in the solution is below 5000 ppm, the salt stress effect is insignificant on above-ground biomass output, leaf photosynthesis rate, Fv/Fm, photosynthesis pigment contents, activities of antioxidant enzymes, and inducing lipid peroxidation. On the other hand, the lettuce is sensitive to NaCl which significantly decreases those indices of growth and physiology. Notably, the lettuce remains high productivity of edible biomass in low NaCl stress, although its salt-tolerant limitation is lower than amaranth. Therefore, we recommended that amaranth could be cultivated under a higher NaCl stress condition (<5000 ppm) for NaCl recycle while lettuce should be under a lower NaCl stress (<1000 ppm) for water cleaning in future BLSS.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.09.025 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712005972
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Controller development of photo bioreactor for closed-loop regulation of O2 production based on ANN model reference control and computer simulation[J

2013

D. Hu, Houkai Zhang, Rui Zhou, Ming Li, Yi Sun

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

When Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS) is used for long-term deep space exploration in the future, it is possible to perform closed-loop control on growth of microalgae to effectively regulate O2 production process in emergencies. However, designing controller of microalgae cultivating device (MCD) by means of traditional methods is very difficult or even impossible due to its highly nonlinearity and large operation scope. In our research, the Artificial Neural Network Model Reference Control (ANN-MRC) method was therefore utilized for model identification and controller design for O2 production process of a specific MCD prototype—photo bioreactor (PBR), based on actual experiment and computer simulation. The results demonstrated that the ANN-MRC servo controller could robustly and self-adaptively control and regulate the light intensity of PBR to make O2 concentrations in vent pipe be in line with step reference concentrations with prescribed dynamic response performance.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2012.09.017 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576512003748
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Mathematical modeling, design and optimization of conceptual configuration of soil-like substrate bioreactor based on system dynamics and digital simulation

2013

Dawei Hu,Houkai Zhang,Leyuan Li,Rui Zhou,Yi Sun

publication: Ecological engineering

Abstract

It will be absolutely necessary to establish a Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS) for both manned exploration of deep space and subsequent founding of extraterrestrial colonies, a goal to which our species not only aspires but to which it likely must attain in order to insure its own future survival. Currently constraining the transport and transformation rates of substances in BLSS is the treatment of inedible plant biomass. To overcome this problem, a Soil-like Substrate (SLS) has been employed, rendering sustainable wheat cultivation from an otherwise inedible wheat biomass. The SLS bioreactor which is a specific artificial ecosystem consisting of wheat, earthworms, bacterial microflora, inedible wheat biomass and the artificial environment has theoretically been built in order to investigate the SLS formation process as well as the system's effective design and optimization. A valid mathematical model of the SLS bioreactor was developed and a performance index function (PIF) was put forward for sufficient description and comprehensive evaluation of the SLS bioreactor operation state, respectively. The closed-loop SLS bioreactor with a Linear-Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) servo controller was also designed through dynamic process optimization. The digital simulation on closed-loop SLS bioreactor indicated PIF could robustly stabilize at the desired level with desire dynamic performance specification under the action of artificial environment factors. Therefore, the closed-loop SLS bioreactor which might be built from the mathematical model and digital simulation has the potential to substantially increase both the closure degree and reliability of BLSS.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.12.037 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857412003928
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Soilless cultivation of soybean for Bioregenerative Life-Support Systems: a literature review and the experience of the MELiSSA Project – Food characterisation Phase I

2013

Roberta Paradiso,Roberta Buonomo,Mike A. Dixon,Giancarlo Barbieri,Stefania De Pascale

publication: Plant Biology

Abstract

Higher plants play a key role in Bioregenerative Life-Support Systems (BLSS) for long-term missions in space, by regenerating air through photosynthetic CO₂ absorption and O₂ emission, recovering water through transpiration and recycling waste products through mineral nutrition. In addition, plants could provide fresh food to integrate into the crew diet and help to preserve astronauts' wellbeing. The ESA programme Micro-Ecological Life-Support System Alternative (MELiSSA) aims to conceive an artificial bioregenerative ecosystem for resources regeneration, based on both microorganisms and higher plants. Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is one of the four candidate species studied for soilless (hydroponic) cultivation in MELiSSA, because of the high nutritional value of the seeds. Within the MELiSSA programme – Food characterisation Phase I, the aim of the research carried out on soybean at the University of Naples was to select the most suitable European cultivars for cultivation in BLSS. In this context, a concise review on the state-of-the-art of soybean cultivation in space-oriented experiments and a summary of research activity for the preliminary theoretical selection and subsequent agronomical evaluation of four cultivars will be presented in this paper.
doi: 10.1111/plb.12056 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/plb.12056
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Improvements in and actual performance of the Plant Experiment Unit onboard Kibo, the Japanese experiment module on the international space station

2013

Sachiko Yano,Haruo Kasahara,Daisuke Masuda,Fumiaki Tanigaki,Toru Shimazu,Hiromi Suzuki,Ichirou Karahara,Kouichi Soga,Takayuki Hoson,Ichiro Tayama,Yoshikazu Tsuchiya,Seiichiro Kamisaka

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

In 2004, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency developed the engineered model of the Plant Experiment Unit and the Cell Biology Experiment Facility. The Plant Experiment Unit was designed to be installed in the Cell Biology Experiment Facility and to support the seed-to-seed life cycle experiment of Arabidopsis plants in space in the project named Space Seed. Ground-based experiments to test the Plant Experiment Unit showed that the unit needed further improvement of a system to control the water content of a seedbed using an infrared moisture analyzer and that it was difficult to keep the relative humidity inside the Plant Experiment Unit between 70 and 80% because the Cell Biology Experiment Facility had neither a ventilation system nor a dehumidifying system. Therefore, excess moisture inside the Cell Biology Experiment Facility was removed with desiccant bags containing calcium chloride. Eight flight models of the Plant Experiment Unit in which dry Arabidopsis seeds were fixed to the seedbed with gum arabic were launched to the International Space Station in the space shuttle STS-128 (17A) on August 28, 2009. Plant Experiment Unit were installed in the Cell Biology Experiment Facility with desiccant boxes, and then the Space Seed experiment was started in the Japanese Experiment Module, named Kibo, which was part of the International Space Station, on September 10, 2009 by watering the seedbed and terminated 2 months later on November 11, 2009. On April 19, 2010, the Arabidopsis plants harvested in Kibo were retrieved and brought back to Earth by the space shuttle mission STS-131 (19A). The present paper describes the Space Seed experiment with particular reference to the development of the Plant Experiment Unit and its actual performance in Kibo onboard the International Space Station. Downlinked images from Kibo showed that the seeds had started germinating 3 days after the initial watering. The plants continued growing, producing rosette leaves, inflorescence stems, flowers, and fruits in the Plant Experiment Unit. In addition, the senescence of rosette leaves was found to be delayed in microgravity.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2012.10.002 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117712006357
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Genome-wide expression analysis of reactive oxygen species gene network in Mizuna plants grown in long-term spaceflight.

2014

Manabu Sugimoto,Youko Oono,Oleg Gusev,Takashi Matsumoto,Takayuki Yazawa,Margarita A Levinskikh,Vladimir N Sychev,Gail E Bingham,Raymond Wheeler,Mary Hummerick

publication: BMC plant biology

Abstract

Spaceflight environment have been shown to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induce oxidative stress in plants, but little is known about the gene expression of the ROS gene network in plants grown in long-term spaceflight. The molecular response and adaptation to the spaceflight environment of Mizuna plants harvested after 27 days of cultivation onboard the International Space Station (ISS) were measured using genome-wide mRNA expression analysis (mRNA-Seq).
doi: 10.1186/1471-2229-14-4 pubmed: 24393219 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-2229-14-4
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Microbial shifts of the silkworm larval gut in response to lettuce leaf feeding

2014

Xue Liang,Yuming Fu,Ling Tong,Hong Liu

publication: Applied microbiology and biotechnology

Abstract

Silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) larvae were used as an ideal animal protein source for astronauts in the bioregenerative life support system (BLSS). Here, we compared the difference in bacterial communities of the silkworm larval gut between the BLSS rearing way (BRW) and the traditional rearing way (TRW) through culture-dependent approach, 16S rRNA gene analysis, and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). The culture-dependent approach revealed that the numbers of gut bacteria of silkworm in the BRW significantly decreased compared with that of the TRW. The analysis of clone libraries showed that the gut microbiota in the BRW was significantly less diverse than that in the TRW. Acinetobacter and Bacteroides were dominant populations in the BRW, and Bacillus and Arcobacter dominated in the TRW. DGGE profiles confirmed the difference of silkworm gut bacterial community between two rearing ways. These results demonstrate that gut bacteria change from the BRW contributes to the decrease of silkworm physiological activity. This study increases our understanding of the change of silkworm gut microbiota in response to lettuce leaf feeding in the BRW. We could use the dominant populations to make probiotic products for nutrient absorption and disease prevention in the BLSS to improve gut microecology, as well as the yield and quality of animal protein.
doi: 10.1007/s00253-014-5532-y pubmed: 24493569 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00253-014-5532-y
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Significant reduction in energy for plant-growth lighting in space using targeted LED lighting and spectral manipulation

2014

L. Poulet,G.D. Massa,R.C. Morrow,C.M. Bourget,R.M. Wheeler,C.A. Mitchell

publication: Life Sciences in Space Research

Abstract

Bioregenerative life-support systems involving photoautotrophic organisms will be necessary to sustain long-duration crewed missions at distant space destinations. Since sufficient sunlight will not always be available for plant growth at many space destinations, efficient electric-lighting solutions are greatly needed. The present study demonstrated that targeted plant lighting with light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and optimizing spectral parameters for close-canopy overhead LED lighting allowed the model crop leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. ‘Waldmann's Green’) to be grown using significantly less electrical energy than using traditional electric-lighting sources. Lettuce stands were grown hydroponically in a growth chamber controlling temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 level. Several red:blue ratios were tested for growth rate during the lag phase of lettuce growth. In addition, start of the exponential growth phase was evaluated. Following establishment of a 95% red + 5% blue spectral balance giving the best growth response, the energy efficiency of a targeted lighting system was compared with that of two total coverage (untargeted) LED lighting systems throughout a crop-production cycle, one using the same proportion of red and blue LEDs and the other using white LEDs. At the end of each cropping cycle, whole-plant fresh and dry mass and leaf area were measured and correlated with the amount of electrical energy (kWh) consumed for crop lighting. Lettuce crops grown with targeted red + blue LED lighting used 50% less energy per unit dry biomass accumulated, and the total coverage white LEDs used 32% less energy per unit dry biomass accumulated than did the total coverage red + blue LEDs. An energy-conversion efficiency of less than 1 kWh/g dry biomass is possible using targeted close-canopy LED lighting with spectral optimization. This project was supported by NASA grant NNX09AL99G.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2014.06.002 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214552414000327
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Soybean cultivation for Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSSs): the effect of hydroponic system and nitrogen source’

2014

Roberta Paradiso,Roberta Buonomo,Mike A. Dixon,Giancarlo Barbieri,Stefania De Pascale

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is one of the plant species selected within the European Space Agency (ESA) Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative (MELiSSA) project for hydroponic cultivation in Biological Life Support Systems (BLSSs), because of the high nutritional value of seeds. Root symbiosis of soybean with Bradirhizobium japonicum contributes to plant nutrition in soil, providing ammonium through the bacterial fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of two hydroponic systems, Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) and cultivation on rockwool, and two nitrogen sources in the nutrient solution, nitrate (as Ca(NO3)2 and KNO3) and urea (CO(NH2)2), on root symbiosis, plant growth and seeds production of soybean. Plants of cultivar ‘OT8914’, inoculated with B. japonicum strain BUS-2, were grown in a growth chamber, under controlled environmental conditions.
Cultivation on rockwool positively influenced root nodulation and plant growth and yield, without affecting the proximate composition of seeds, compared to NFT. Urea as the sole source of N drastically reduced the seed production and the harvest index of soybean plants, presumably because of ammonium toxicity, even though it enhanced root nodulation and increased the N content of seeds. In the view of large-scale cultivation for space colony on planetary surfaces, the possibility to use porous media, prepared using in situ resources, should be investigated. Urea can be included in the nutrient formulation for soybean in order to promote bacterial activity, however a proper ammonium/nitrate ratio should be maintained.

doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2013.11.024 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117713007084
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Can plant grown on Mars and the Moon: A growth experimenton Mars and Moon Soil simulants PLoS

2014

G. W. Wieger Wamelink,Joep Y. Frissel,Wilfred H. J. Krijnen,M. Rinie Verwoert,Paul W. Goedhart

publication: PLoS ONE

Abstract

When humans will settle on the moon or Mars they will have to eat there. Food may be flown in. An alternative could be to cultivate plants at the site itself, preferably in native soils. We report on the first large-scale controlled experiment to investigate the possibility of growing plants in Mars and moon soil simulants. The results show that plants are able to germinate and grow on both Martian and moon soil simulant for a period of 50 days without any addition of nutrients. Growth and flowering on Mars regolith simulant was much better than on moon regolith simulant and even slightly better than on our control nutrient poor river soil. Reflexed stonecrop (a wild plant); the crops tomato, wheat, and cress; and the green manure species field mustard performed particularly well. The latter three flowered, and cress and field mustard also produced seeds. Our results show that in principle it is possible to grow crops and other plant species in Martian and Lunar soil simulants. However, many questions remain about the simulants' water carrying capacity and other physical characteristics and also whether the simulants are representative of the real soils.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103138 link: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0103138
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Biochemical, photosynthetic and productive parameters of Chinese cabbage grown under blue–red LED assembly designed for space agriculture

2014

Olga Avercheva,Yuliy A. Berkovich,Svetlana Smolyanina,Elizaveta Bassarskaya,Sergey Pogosyan,Vasiliy Ptushenko,Alexei Erokhin,Tatiana Zhigalova

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Currently light emitting diodes (LEDs) are considered to be most preferable source for space plant growth facilities. We performed a complex study of growth and photosynthesis in Chinese cabbage plants (Brassica chinensis L.) grown with continuous LED lighting based on red (650 nm) and blue (470 nm) LEDs with a red to blue photon ratio of 7:1. Plants grown with high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps were used as a control. PPF levels used were about 100 μmol/(m2 s) (PPF 100) and nearly 400 μmol/(m2 s) (PPF 400). One group of plants was grown with PPF 100 and transferred to PPF 400 at the age of 12 days. Plants were studied at the age of 15 and 28 days (harvest age); some plants were left to naturally end their life cycle. We studied a number of parameters reflecting different stages of photosynthesis: photosynthetic pigment content; chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (photosystem II quantum yield, photochemical and non-photochemical chlorophyll fluorescence quenching); electron transport rate, proton gradient on thylakoid membranes (ΔpH), and photophosphorylation rate in isolated chloroplasts. We also tested parameters reflecting plant growth and productivity: shoot and root fresh and dry weight, sugar content and ascorbic acid content in shoots. Our results had shown that at PPF 100, plants grown with LEDs did not differ from control plants in shoot fresh weight, but showed substantial differences in photophosphorylation rate and sugar content. Differences observed in plants grown with PPF 100 become more pronounced in plants grown with PPF 400. Most parameters characterizing the plant photosynthetic performance, such as photosynthetic pigment content, electron transport rate, and ΔpH did not react strongly to light spectrum. Photophosphorylation rate differed strongly in plants grown with different spectrum and PPF level, but did not always reflect final plant yield. Results of the present work suggest that narrow-band LED lighting caused changes in Chinese cabbage plants on levels of the photosynthetic apparatus and the whole plant, concerning its development and adaptation to a varying PPF level.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2014.03.003 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117714001501
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Low light intensity effects on the growth, photosynthetic characteristics, antioxidant capacity, yield and quality of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) at different growth stages in BLSS

2014

Chen Dong,Yuming Fu,Guanghui Liu,Hong Liu

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Minimizing energy consumption and maximizing crop productivity are major challenges to growing plants in Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS) for future long-term space mission. As a primary source of energy, light is one of the most important environmental factors for plant growth. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of low light intensity at different stages on growth, pigment composition, photosynthetic efficiency, biological production and antioxidant defence systems of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars during ontogenesis. Experiments were divided into 3 intensity-controlled stages according to growth period (a total of 65 days): seedling stage (first 20 days), heading and flowering stage (middle 30 days) and grain filling stage (last 15 days). Initial light condition of the control was 420 μmol m−2 s−1 and the light intensity increased with the growth of wheat plants. The light intensities of group I and II at the first stage and the last stage were adjusted to the half level of the control respectively. For group III, the first and the last stage were both adjusted to half level of the control. During the middle 30 days, all treatments were kept the same intensity. The results indicated that low-light treatment at seedling stage, biomass, nutritional contents, components of inedible biomass and healthy index (including peroxidase (POD) activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) and proline content) of wheat plants have no significant difference to the control. Furthermore, unit kilojoule yield of group I reached 0.591 × 10−3 g/kJ and induced the highest energy efficiency. However, low-light treatment at grain filling stage affected the final production significantly.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2014.02.004 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117714000921
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Productivity of Mizuna Cultivated in the Space Greenhouse Onboard the Russian Module of the ISS.

2014

M Levinskikh, V Sychev, I Podolsky, G Bingham, L Moukhamedieva

publication: 40th COSPAR Scientific Assembly

Abstract

As stipulated by the science program of research into the processes of growth, development, metabolism and reproduction of higher plants in microgravity in view of their potential use in advanced life support systems, five experiments on Mizuna plants (Brassica rapa var. nipponisica) were performed using the Lada space greenhouse onboard the ISS Russian Module (RM) during Expeditions ISS-5, 17 and 20-22. One of the goals of the experiments was to evaluate the productivity of Mizuna plants grown at different levels of ISS RM air contamination. Mizuna plants were cultivated for 31 - 36 days when exposed to continuous illumination. The root growing medium was made of Turface enriched with a controlled release fertilizer Osmocote. In the course of the flight experiments major parameters of plant cultivation, total level of ISS RM air contamination and plant microbiological status were measured. The grown plants were returned to Earth as fresh or frozen samples. After the three last vegetation cycles the plants were harvested, packed and frozen at -80 0C in the MELFI freezer on the ISS U.S. Module and later returned to Earth onboard Space Shuttle. It was found that the productivity and morphometric (e.g., plant height and mass, number of leaves) parameters of the plants grown in space did not differ from those seen in ground controls. The T coefficient, which represents the total contamination level of ISS air), was 4 (ISS-5), 22 (ISS-17), 55 (ISS-20), 22 (ISS-21) and 28 (ISS-22) versus the norm of no more than 5. In summary, a significant increase in the total contamination level of the ISS RM air did not reduce the productivity of the leaf vegetable plant used in the flight experiments.
link: https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014cosp...40E1803L/abstract
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Effects of prolonged near weightlessness on growth and gas exchange of photosynthetic plants

2014

Silje Wolff,Liz Coelho,Irene Karoliussen,Ann-Iren Jost

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Gas equilibrium regulation by closed-loop photo bioreactor built on system dynamics, fuzzy inference system and computer simulation

2014

Dawei Hu,Liang Li,Yanchao Li,Ming Li,Houkai Zhang,Ming Zhao

publication: Computers and Electronics in Agriculture

Abstract

It is vitally important to robustly stabilize gases (O2 and CO2) concentrations in the Bioregenerative Life Support System at nominal levels on space mission. The blue algae, Spirulina platensis, having special advantages of high growth rate, controllability and metabolism flexibility were therefore utilized to maintain gas equilibrium. In our research, photo bioreactor (PBR) cultivating S. platensis was built for investigation on effective design and optimization of advanced PBR. Firstly, a mathematical model expressed in terms of a set of parameterized nonlinear first-order differential equations for sufficient description of inner structure and processes of PBR was developed by system dynamics based on related mechanisms and experimental data. Secondly, a fuzzy inference system (FIS) was constructed and used as feedback fuzzy logic controller (FLC) of PBR. Finally, the parameters in PBR model and member functions were optimally specified by a predetermined response curve. The results demonstrated that FIS–FLC could effectively control and regulate the system’s inputs, light intensity and flow rate of air in aerating pipe, to robustly stabilize the system’s output at a target O2 /CO2 ratio of 214 in the gas phase of PBR with satisfactory dynamic process.
doi: 10.1016/j.compag.2014.02.002 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168169914000374
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Genome-wide expression analysis of reactive oxygen species gene network in Mizuna plants grown in long-term spaceflight

2014

Manabu Sugimoto,Youko Oono,Oleg Gusev,Takashi Matsumoto,Takayuki Yazawa,Margarita A Levinskikh,Vladimir N Sychev,Gail E Bingham,Raymond Wheeler,Mary Hummerick

publication: BMC plant biology

Abstract

Spaceflight environment have been shown to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induce oxidative stress in plants, but little is known about the gene expression of the ROS gene network in plants grown in long-term spaceflight. The molecular response and adaptation to the spaceflight environment of Mizuna plants harvested after 27 days of cultivation onboard the International Space Station (ISS) were measured using genome-wide mRNA expression analysis (mRNA-Seq).
doi: 10.1186/1471-2229-14-4 pubmed: 24393219 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-2229-14-4
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Journal papers from Kennedy Space Center Advanced Life Support and Plant Space Biology

2014

R.M. Wheeler

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Relationship between carbon dioxide levels and reported headaches on the International Space Station

2014

J. Law, M. Van Baalen, M. Foy, S.S. Mason, C. Mendez, M.L. Wear, V.E. Meyers, D. Alexander

publication: Journal of occupational and environmental medicine

Abstract

Because of anecdotal reports of CO(2)-related symptoms onboard the International Space Station (ISS), the relationship between CO(2) and in-flight headaches was analyzed.
doi: 10.1097/JOM.0000000000000158 pubmed: 24806559 link: https://journals.lww.com/joem/fulltext/2014/05000/relationship_between_carbon_dioxide_levels_and.4.aspx
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Growth, Photosynthetic Characteristics, Antioxidant Capacity and Biomass Yield and Quality of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Exposed to LED Light Sources with Different Spectra Combinations

2014

C. Dong,Y. Fu,G. Liu,H. Liu

publication: Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science

Abstract

As a consequence of the increasing importance of crop in Bioregenerative Life Support System (BLSS), there is an interest in enhancing both the productivity and quality of wheat. Lighting systems for growing wheat need to be lightweight, reliable and durable. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have these characteristics. Previous studies demonstrated that the combination of red and blue lights was an effective light source for several crops. Yet the appearance of plant in this kind of lighting was purplish grey, and other problems were also accompanied. The addition of other spectra LEDs made better growth and also offer a better visual experience to bring psychological benefit to the crews. The objective of this study was to investigate the influences of different spectra combinations on the wheat growth, photosynthetic characteristics, antioxidant capacity and biomass yield and quality during their life cycle. Four types of different spectra combinations with the same intensity were employed: a single red light (R), a red–blue light (R + B, R : B = 4 : 1), a red–white light (R + W, R : W = 4 : 1) and a white light (W). The results showed that the wheat cultivated in the R + W light was characterized by highest harvest index and lowest lignin in inedible biomass, which was more beneficial to recycle substances in the processes of the environment regeneration. The data were comparable to those under W condition in terms of straw height, relative water content (RWC), membrane stability index (MSI), photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll concentration, antioxidant capacity, thousand kernel weight (TKW) and soluble sugar concentration. Wheat was sensitive to light quality which significantly affected those indices of growth and physiology, especially at earing and flowering stages.
doi: 10.1111/jac.12059 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jac.12059
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Habitation in space

2014

Masamichi Yamashita,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: In: Macdonald, M., Badescu, V. (eds) The International Handbook of Space Technology. Springer Praxis Books

Abstract

Extending human activities to outer space has been a major target of space engineering from its inception. We have long dreamed of space flight, been curious about the origin of the universe, our solar system, and life on Earth (Tsiolkovsky in Exploration of world space with rockets. Kaluga Press, Russia). Even with recent discoveries of many extra-solar planets, Earth remains a uniquely habitable planet.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-41101-4_17 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-41101-4_17
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Design and control of rotating soil-like substrate plant-growing facility based on plant water requirement and computational fluid dynamics simulation

2014

Dawei Hu,Liang Li,Hui Liu,Yi Sun,Leyuan Li,Yuming Fu,Houkai Zhang

publication: Ecological engineering

Abstract

It is necessary to process inedible plant biomass into soil-like substrate (SLS) by bio-compost to realize biological resource sustainable utilization. Although similar to natural soil in structure and function, SLS often has uneven water distribution adversely affecting the plant growth due to unsatisfactory porosity, permeability and gravity distribution. In this article, SLS plant-growing facility (SLS-PGF) were therefore rotated properly for cultivating lettuce, and the Brinkman equations coupled with laminar flow equations were taken as governing equations, and boundary conditions were specified by actual operating characteristics of rotating SLS-PGF. Optimal open-control law of the angular and inflow velocity was determined by lettuce water requirement and CFD simulations. The experimental result clearly showed that water content was more uniformly distributed in SLS under the action of centrifugal and Coriolis force, rotating SLS-PGF with the optimal open-control law could meet lettuce water requirement at every growth stage and achieve precise irrigation.
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.12.048 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092585741300548X
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Poly-culture food production mass balances prediction in a semi-closed lunar greenhouse prototype (LGH

2014

G. Boscheri, M. Lamantea, C. Lobascio, L. Patterson, E. Hernandez, T. Jensen, M. Kacira

publication: 44th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

In 2010 Thales Alenia Space Italia (TAS-I) tailored and applied an existing plant growth model for application to the University of Arizona Controlled Environment Agriculture Center (UA-CEAC) Lunar Greenhouse Prototype (LGH). The activity was carried on in collaboration with UA-CEAC and Sadler Machine Co. (USA) in the framework of the NASA Ralph Steckler Phase I Space Grant effort. Starting from the results of that activity, the LGH facility data collection system in aid to the modelling effort has been improved through support by the NASA Ralph Steckler Phase II Space Grant and of a wider consortium. This paper will present the quantified mass balances and the flows of input resources (i.e. water, carbon dioxide, dry fertilizer salts) and output production (i.e. biomass, water condensate, oxygen) and their comparison to the values predicted by the plant growth model, developed starting from Cavazzoni’s Modified Energy Cascade (MEC) model. Capability for reliable crop yield prediction will be discussed in the paper with main lessons learned from the activity.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/85fdae2e-0165-4cbc-9c77-e9df516d0778
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Effects of aqueous extract of soil-like substrate made from three different materials on seed germination and seedling growth of rice

2014

Lingzhi Shao,Yuming Fu,Wenting Fu,Min Yan,Leyuan Li,Hong Liu

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

Biologically processing rice and wheat straws into soil-like substrate (SLS) and then reusing them in plant cultivation system to achieve waste recycle is very crucially important in Bioregenerative life support system (BLSS). However, rice is a plant with strong allelopathic potential. It is not clear yet that what kinds of raw materials can be processed into proper SLS to grow rice in BLSS. Therefore, in this study, the aqueous extract of SLS made from three different materials including rice straw, wheat straw and rice–wheat straw mixture was utilized to investigate its effects on the seed germination and seedling growth of rice. The gradients of the extract concentrations (soil:water) were 1:3, 1:5, 1:9, and 1:15 with deionized water used as control. The effects of different types of SLS on seed germination and seedling vitality of rice were confirmed by analyzing the germination rate, seedling length, root length, the fresh weight and other indicants. In addition, based on the analysis towards pH, organic matter composition and other factors of the SLS as well as the chlorophyll, hormone content of rice, and the mechanism of the inhibition was speculated in order to explore the preventive methods of the phenomenon. Finally, the feasibility of cultivating rice on SLSs made from the raw materials mentioned above was evaluated and wheat raw was determined as the most appropriate material for growing rice.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.10.007 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576513003779
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Effects of different carbon dioxide and LED lighting levels on the anti-oxidative capabilities of Gynura biocolor DC

2014

J. Ren, S. Guo, C. Xu, C. Yang, W. Ai, Y. Tang, L. Qin

publication: Advances in Space Research

Abstract

Gynura bicolor DC is not only an edible plant but also a kind of traditional Chinese herbal medicine. G. bicolor DC grown in controlled environmental chambers under 3 CO2 concentrations [450 (ambient), 1500 (elevated), 8000 (super-elevated) μmol mol−1] and 3 LED lighting conditions [white (WL), 85% red + 15% blue (RB15), 70% red + 30% blue (RB30) ] were investigated to reveal plausible antioxidant anabolic responses to CO2 enrichment and LED light quality. Under ambient and elevated CO2 levels, blue light increasing from 15% to 30% was conducive to the accumulation of anthocyanins and total flavonoids, and the antioxidant activity of extract was also increased, but plant biomass was decreased. These results demonstrated that the reinforcement of blue light could induce more antioxidant of secondary metabolites, but depress the effective growth of G. bicolor DC under ambient and elevated CO2 levels. In addition, compared with the ambient and elevated CO2 levels, the increased anthocyanins, total flavonoids contents and antioxidant enzyme activities of G. bicolor DC under super-elevated CO2 level could serve as important components of antioxidative defense mechanism against CO2 stress. Hence, G. bicolor DC might have higher tolerance to CO2 stress.
doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2013.11.019 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117713007035
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Next generation life support project status

2014

D.J. Barta, C. Chullen, L. Vega, M.R. Cox, L.T. Aitchison, K.E. Lange, S.J. Pensinger, C.E.Meyer M. Flynn, T.-M.J.Richardson W.A. Jackson, M.B. Abney, M.N. Birmele, G.M. Lunn, R.M. Wheeler

publication: 44th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Next Generation Life Support (NGLS) is one of more than 20 technology development projects sponsored by NASA’s Game Changing Development Program. The NGLS Project develops selected life support technologies needed for humans to live and work productively in space, with focus on technologies for future use in spacecraft cabin and space suit applications. Over the last 3 years, NGLS had five main project elements: Variable Oxygen Regulator (VOR), Rapid Cycle Amine (RCA) swing bed, High Performance Extravehicular Activity (EVA) Glove (HPEG), Alternative Water Processor (AWP) and Series-Bosch Carbon Dioxide Reduction. The RCA swing bed, VOR and HPEG tasks are directed at key technology needs for the Portable Life Support System (PLSS) and pressure garment for an Advanced Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU). Focus is on prototyping and integrated testing in cooperation with the Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) Advanced EVA Project. The HPEG Element, new this fiscal year, includes the generation of requirements and standards to guide development and evaluation of new glove designs. The AWP and Bosch efforts focus on regenerative technologies to further close spacecraft cabin atmosphere revitalization and water recovery loops and to meet technology maturation milestones defined in NASA’s Space Technology Roadmaps. These activities are aimed at increasing affordability, reliability, and vehicle self-sufficiency while decreasing mass and mission cost, supporting a capability-driven architecture for extending human presence beyond low-Earth orbit, along a human path toward Mars. This paper provides a status of current technology development activities with a brief overview of future plans.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/ed212b2e-cecf-45fb-b908-ef77d18c2a66
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Recycling of Dry-Batch Digestate as Amendment: Soil C and N Dynamics and Ryegrass Nitrogen Utilization Efficiency

2014

Marco Grigatti,Luciano Cavani,Claudio Marzadori,Claudio Ciavatta

publication: Waste and Biomass Valorization

Abstract

In this work a residue of dry-batch anaerobic digestion (DB) from the organic fraction of municipal solid waste, its composted homologous (CDB), and a municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) were characterized for their main physico-chemical traits and biological stability [oxygen uptake rate (OUR)]. These were then compared in soil incubations at 200 mg N kg^-1, to assess carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) mineralization. The products’ nitrogen apparent recovery fraction (ARF) was assessed in a pot trial on Italian ryegrass. DB showed the highest OUR, followed by CDB and the more stable MSWC: 161.7; 20.7 and 5.7 mmol O2 kg⁻¹ VS h⁻¹, partially in agreement with the potentially mineralizable C pools in soil: 58.4; 16.6 and 19.5 % and their kinetics (k, 0.1906; 0.1405 and 0.1377 day⁻¹). Composting greatly reduced the total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from 7,950 to 3,449 mg kg⁻¹ in DB and CDB, even higher than MSWC (1,936 mg kg⁻¹). After intense N-immobilization in soil (−22.3 %), DB finally reduced the gap (−6.9 %), also having a positive ARF (5.0 %), while CDB had greater N-immobilization (−12.9 %) and a negative ARF (−3.4 %). MSWC showed 3.8 % N-mineralization, and an intermediate ARF (2.7 %). The management of DB for plant nutrition therefore seems difficult since DB can furnish nitrogen not easily synchronizable with plant growth due to its release pattern characterized by initial immobilization. Composting increased stability but amplified N-immobilization due to the high C:N ratio of the bulking agent. A prolonged and more balanced composting process can reduce this restriction, aligning CDB with MSWC.
doi: 10.1007/s12649-014-9302-y link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12649-014-9302-y
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Light-emitting diode light transmission through leaf tissue of seven different crops

2015

Gioia Massa,Thomas Graham,Tim Haire,Cedric Flemming,Gerard Newsham,Raymond Wheeler

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Significant advances in controlled-environment (CE) plant production lighting have been made in recent years, driven by rapid improvements in light-emitting diode (LED) technologies. Aside from energy efficiency gains, LEDs offer the ability to customize the spectrum delivered to a crop, which may have untold benefits for growers and researchers alike. Understanding how these specific wavebands are attenuated by plant tissue is important if lighting engineers are to fully optimize systems for CE plant production. In this study, seven different greenhouse and field crops (radish, Raphanus sativus ‘Cherry Bomb II’; red romaine lettuce, Lactuca sativa ‘Outredgeous’, green leaf lettuce, Lactuca sativa ‘Waldmann’s Green’; pepper, Capsicum annuum ‘Fruit Basket’; soybean, Glycine max ’Hoyt’; cucumber, Cucumis sativus ‘Spacemaster’; canola, Brassica napus ‘Westar’) were grown in CE chambers under two different light intensities (225 and 420 μmol·m−2·s−1). Intact, fully expanded upper canopy leaves were used to determine the level of light transmission, at two to three different plant ages, across seven different wavebands with peaks at 400, 450, 530, 595, 630, 655, and 735 nm. The photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) environment that plants were grown in affected light transmission across the different LED wavelengths in a crop-dependent manner. Plant age had no effect on light transmission at the time intervals examined. Specific waveband transmission from the seven LED sources varied similarly across plant types with low transmission of blue and red wavelengths, intermediate transmission of green and amber wavelengths, and the highest transmission at the far-red wavelengths. Higher native PPF increased anthocyanin levels in red romaine lettuce compared with the lower native PPF treatment. Understanding the differences in light transmission will inform the development of novel, energy-saving lighting architectures for CE plant growth.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.50.3.501 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/50/3/article-p501.xml
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Temperature affects long-term productivity and quality attributes of day-neutral strawberry for a space life-support system

2015

Gioia D. Massa,Elaine Chase,Judith B. Santini,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Life sciences in space research

Abstract

Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa L.) is a promising candidate crop for space life-support systems with desirable sensory quality and health attributes. Day-neutral cultivars such as 'Seascape' are adaptable to a range of photoperiods, including short days that would save considerable energy for crop lighting without reductions in productivity or yield. Since photoperiod and temperature interact to affect strawberry growth and development, several diurnal temperature regimes were tested under a short photoperiod of 10 h per day for effects on yield and quality attributes of 'Seascape' strawberry during production cycles longer than 270 days. The coolest day/night temperature regime, 16°/8 °C, tended to produce smaller numbers of larger fruit than did the intermediate temperature range of 18°/10 °C or the warmest regime, 20°/12 °C, both of which produced similar larger numbers of smaller fruit. The intermediate temperature regime produced the highest total fresh mass of berries over an entire production cycle. Independent experiments examined either organoleptic or physicochemical quality attributes. Organoleptic evaluation indicated that fruit grown under the coolest temperature regime tended to score the highest for both hedonic preference and descriptive evaluation of sensory attributes related to sweetness, texture, aftertaste, and overall approval. The physicochemical quality attributes Brix, pH, and sugar/acid ratio were highest for fruits harvested from the coolest temperature regime and lower for those from the warmer temperature regimes. The cool-regime fruits also were lowest in titratable acidity. The yield parameters fruit number and size oscillated over the course of a production cycle, with a gradual decline in fruit size under all three temperature regimes. Brix and titratable acidity both decreased over time for all three temperature treatments, but sugar/acid ratio remained highest for the cool temperature regime over the entire production period. Periodic rejuvenation or replacement of strawberry propagules may be needed to maintain both quality and quantity of strawberry yield in space.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2015.04.003 pubmed: 26177848 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214552415000206
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Review of Antarctic greenhouses and plant production facilities: A historical account of food plants on the ice

2015

M.T. Bamsey, P. Zabel, C. Zeidler, D. Gyimesi, D. Schubert, E. Kohlberg, D. Mengedoht, T. Graham

publication: 45th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Antarctic crews have been transporting plants and their supporting infrastructure to Antarctic field sites since as early as 1902. More than 46 distinct plant production facilities have, at one time or another, operated in Antarctica. Production facilities have varied significantly in size, technical sophistication, and operational life. Many of these efforts have been driven by the expeditioners themselves, which clearly demonstrates the fundamental desire that people have to associate themselves with plants while living and working in inhospitable environments. The need for this biological association can be solely psychological, while at other times it is based on the more practical need for fresh food. Although the nature of plant growth activities has evolved with the implementation of increasingly stringent environmental regulations, there remains strong interest in deploying such systems within or near Antarctic stations. Current Antarctic plant growth facilities are predominately organized and administered at the national program level to ensure such regulations are adhered to. Nine hydroponic facilities are currently operating in Antarctica. This paper summarizes historic and existing Antarctic facilities by incorporating information from expeditioners, environmental assessment reports, direct communication with national contact points, as well as published reference documents, unpublished reports, and web-based sources. A description of the country operating the facility, the specific Antarctic station, as well as specific information with regard to the facility size and the nature/type of the deployed systems are provided. Looking towards the future of Antarctic plant growth facilities, a number of previously and currently planned Antarctic facilities are also reviewed. The potential for future Antarctic plant production systems are discussed and considered not only for food production but also as bioregenerative life support systems, in that they can provide supplemental station capacity for air and water regeneration. Antarctic testing can also advance the readiness of hardware and operational protocols for use in space-based systems, such as in orbit/transit or on the surface of the Moon and Mars.
link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1F73ERj7ZGN5wue22pJ1qZidCnZ1tIZsE/view
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Effect of bacterial root symbiosis and urea as source of nitrogen on performance of soybean plants grown hydroponically for bioregenerative life support systems (BLSSs)’

2015

Roberta Paradiso,Roberta Buonomo,Mike A. Dixon,Giancarlo Barbieri,Stefania De Pascale

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

Soybean is traditionally grown in soil, where root symbiosis with Bradyrhizobium japonicum can supply nitrogen (N), by means of bacterial fixation of atmospheric N2. Nitrogen fertilizers inhibit N-fixing bacteria. However, urea is profitably used in soybean cultivation in soil, where urease enzymes of telluric microbes catalyze the hydrolysis to ammonium, which has a lighter inhibitory effect compared to nitrate. Previous researches demonstrated that soybean can be grown hydroponically with recirculating complete nitrate-based nutrient solutions. In Space, urea derived from crew urine could be used as N source, with positive effects in resource procurement and waste recycling. However, whether the plants are able to use urea as the sole source of N and its effect on root symbiosis with B. japonicum is still unclear in hydroponics. We compared the effect of two N sources, nitrate and urea, on plant growth and physiology, and seed yield and quality of soybean grown in closed-loop Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) in growth chamber, with or without inoculation with B. japonicum. Urea limited plant growth and seed yield compared to nitrate by determining nutrient deficiency, due to its low utilization efficiency in the early developmental stages, and reduced nutrients uptake (K, Ca, and Mg) throughout the whole growing cycle. Root inoculation with B. japonicum did not improve plant performance, regardless of the N source. Specifically, nodulation increased under fertigation with urea compared to nitrate, but this effect did not result in higher leaf N content and better biomass and seed production. Urea was not suitable as sole N source for soybean in closed-loop NFT. However, the ability to use urea increased from young to adult plants, suggesting the possibility to apply it during reproductive phase or in combination with nitrate in earlier developmental stages. Root symbiosis did not contribute significantly to N nutrition and did not enhance the plant ability to use urea, possibly because of ineffective infection process and nodule functioning in hydroponics.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00888 pubmed: 26579144 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2015.00888/full
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Selection of leafy green vegetables varieties for a pick-and-eat diet supplement on ISS. 45th Intl. Conf. on Environ. Systems, ICES-2015-252.

2015

G.D. Massa, R.M. Wheeler, G.W. Stutte, J.T. Richards, L.E. Spencer, M.E. Hummerick, G.L. Douglas, T. Sirmons

publication: 45th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Several varieties of leafy vegetables were evaluated with the goal of selecting those with the best growth, nutrition, and organoleptic acceptability for ISS. Candidate species were narrowed to commercially available cultivars with desirable growth attributes for space (e.g., short stature and rapid growth). Seeds were germinated in controlled environment chambers under conditions similar to what might be found in the Veggie plant growth chamber on ISS. Eight varieties of leafy greens were grown: ‘Tyee’ spinach , ‘Flamingo’ spinach , ‘Outredgeous’ Red Romaine lettuce , ‘Waldmann’s Dark Green’ leaf lettuce, ‘Bull’s Blood’ beet, ‘Rhubarb’ Swiss chard, ‘Tokyo Bekana’ Chinese cabbage, and Mizuna. Plants were harvested at maturity and biometric data on plant height, diameter, chlorophyll content, and fresh mass were obtained. Tissue was ground and extractions were performed to determine the tissue elemental content of Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca) and Iron (Fe). Following the biometric/elemental evaluation, four of the eight varieties were tested further for levels of anthocyanins, antioxidant (ORAC-fluorescein) capacity, lutein, zeaxanthin, and Vitamin K. For sensory evaluation, ‘Outredgeous’ lettuce, Swiss chard, Chinese cabbage, and Mizuna plants were grown, harvested when mature, packaged under refrigerated conditions, and sent to the JSC Space Food Systems Laboratory. Tasters evaluated overall acceptability, appearance, color intensity, bitterness, flavor, texture, crispness and tenderness. All varieties received acceptable scores with overall ratings greater than 6 on a 9-point hedonic scale. Chinese cabbage was the highest rated, followed by Mizuna, ‘Outredgeous’ lettuce, and Swiss chard. Based on our results, the selected varieties of Chinese cabbage, lettuce, Swiss chard and Mizuna seem suitable for a pick-and-eat scenario on ISS with a ranking based on all factors analyzed to help establish priority.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/a622a84a-e3c5-4dda-89b4-55af7f978365
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Over-expression of FT1 in plum (Prunus domestica) results in phenotypes compatible with spaceflight: A potential new candidate crop for bioregenerative life support systems

2015

T. Graham, R. Scorza, R. Wheeler, B. Smith, C. Dardick, A. Dixit, D. Raines, A. Callahan, C. Srinivasan, L. Spencer, J. Richards, G. Stutte

publication: Gravitational and Space Research

Abstract

Tree fruits (e.g., apples, plums, cherries) are appealing constituents of a crew menu for long- duration exploration missions (i.e., Mars), both in terms of their nutritive and menu diversity contributions. Although appealing, tree fruit species have long been precluded as candidate crops for use in plant-based bioregenerative life support system designs based on their large crown architecture, prolonged juvenile phase, and phenological constraints. Recent advances by researchers at the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have led to the development of plum (Prunus domestica) trees ectopically over-expressing the Flowering Locus T-1 (FT1) gene from Populus trichocarpa (poplar). The transformed plants exhibit atypical phenotypes that seemingly eliminate the aforementioned obstacles to spaceflight. Here we demonstrate the FT1 expression system (FasTrack) and the resultant dwarf growth habits, early flowering, and continuous fruit production. The potential contribution of P. domestica as a countermeasure to microgravity-induced bone loss is also discussed.
doi: 10.2478/gsr-2015-0004 link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/18uFJddwC2eZcJIeP3FHwnYtVwg2Y8xvG/view
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Evaluation of wheat growth, morphological characteristics, biomass yield and quality in Lunar Palace-1, plant factory, green house and field systems

2015

Chen Dong,Lingzhi Shao,Yuming Fu,Minjuan Wang,Beizhen Xie,Juan Yu,Hong Liu

publication: Acta astronautica

Abstract

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important agricultural crops in both space such as Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS) and urban agriculture fields, and its cultivation is affected by several environmental factors. The objective of this study was to investigate the influences of different environmental conditions (BLSS, plant factory, green house and field) on the wheat growth, thousand kernel weight (TKW), harvest index (HI), biomass yield and quality during their life cycle. The results showed that plant height partially influenced by the interaction effects with environment, and this influence decreased gradually with the plant development. It was found that there was no significant difference between the BLSS and plant factory treatments on yields per square, but the yield of green house and field treatments were both lower. TKW and HI in BLSS and plant factory were larger than those in the green house and field. However, grain protein concentration can be inversely correlated with grain yield. Grain protein concentrations decreased under elevate CO2 condition and the magnitude of the reductions depended on the prevailing environmental condition. Conditional interaction effects with environment also influenced the components of straw during the mature stage. It indicated that CO2 enriched environment to some extent was better for inedible biomass degradation and had a significant effect on “source–sink flow” at grain filling stage, which was more beneficial to recycle substances in the processes of the environment regeneration.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2015.02.021 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576515000740
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A new plant habitat facility for the ISS,” July. 46th Intl. Conf. Environ. Sys.

2016

R. Morrow, R. Richter, G. Tellez, O. Monje, R.M. Wheeler, G.D. Massa, N. Dufour, B. Onate

publication: 46th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

The NASA Advanced Plant Habitat (APH) is configured as a quad-locker payload to be mounted in a standard EXpedite the PRo-cessing of Experiments to the Space Station Rack on the International Space Station. It is envisioned to be the largest plant growth chamber yet to be developed for ISS. The APH is designed to support commercial and fundamental plant research by providing a broad range of environmental control, analytical, and operational capabilities. The APH science accommodation strategy is to optimize these capabilities within resource constraints (mass, volume, power and crew time). Components of the APH consists of the Growth Light Assembly, Thermal Control Subsystem, Science Carrier, Structural Mounting Assembly, Growth Chamber, Water Recovery and Distribution Subassembly, Power Distribution Assembly, Environmental Control System, Avionics and Fluids Drawer. APH integrates proven microgravity plant growth technologies and is based on an open architecture concept to allow critical subsystems to be removed and replaced onboard the ISS.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/f6f827dd-f50c-4f01-b207-7189819f89fe
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Wheat carbon dioxide responses in space simulations conducted at the Chinese Lunar Palace-1

2016

Chen Dong,Lingzhi Shao,Minjuan Wang,Guanghui Liu,Hui Liu,Beizhen Xie,Bowei Li,Yuming Fu,Hong Liu

publication: Agronomy Journal

Abstract

Since the industrial revolution, anthropogenic activities, such as fossil fuel use and deforestation, have caused a dramatic increase in the atmospheric CO2 concentration. To understand how the growth and development in cereal crops may respond to elevated CO2, it is necessary to determine if the leaves of crops grown in a closed artificial ecosystem have a fully developed photosynthetic apparatus and whether or not photosynthesis in these leaves is more responsive to an elevated CO2 concentration. To address this issue, we evaluated the response of the photosynthetic characteristics, antioxidant capacity, and water use efficiency of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under four CO2 concentrations (500, 1000, 3000, and 5000 ppm) for 3 d in Lunar Palace-1, which is the first bioregenerative life support system developed in China. The results showed that wheat cultivated at 1000 ppm from vegetative growth to maturity was characterized by more appropriate relative water content, membrane stability index, photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll concentration, and antioxidant capacity, which was more beneficial to growth and development in a closed artificial environment. There were significant effects with increased CO2 concentration on the effective quantum yield of PSII and photosynthetic electron transport of wheat plants. Furthermore, elevated CO2 controlled the transpiration rate, which enhanced water use efficiency. During ripening, wheat aging may be accelerated by elevated CO2, which promotes grain growth and maturing.
doi: 10.2134/agronj15.0265 link: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj15.0265
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Failure analysis under electric lights: Growth and yield of sweetpotato in response to 14 days of prolonged darkness

2016

Desmond G. Mortley,Douglas R. Hileman,Conrad K. Bonsi,Walter A. Hill,Carlton E. Morris

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Two sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam] genotypes (TU-82-155 and NCC-58) were grown hydroponically and subjected to a temporary loss of lighting in the form of 14 days of prolonged darkness compared with a lighted control under standard daily light periods to determine the impact on growth responses and storage root yield. Vine cuttings of both genotypes were grown in rectangular channels. At 65 days after planting, lights were turned off in the treatment chambers and replaced by a single incandescent lamp, providing between 7 and 10 µmol·m−2·s−1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) for 18 hours, and the temperature lowered from 28/22 °C light/dark, to a constant 20 °C. Plants remained under these conditions for 14 days after which the original light level was restored. Growth chamber conditions predark included, a PPF mean provided by 400-W metal halide lamps, of 600 ± 25 µmol·m−2·s−1, an 18-hour light/6-hour dark cycle and a relative humidity of 70% ± 5%. The nutrient solution used was a modified half-Hoagland with pH and electrical conductivity (EC) maintained between 5.5–6.0 and 1000–1200 μS·cm−1, respectively, and was adjusted weekly. Storage root number and fresh weight were similar regardless of treatments. Plants exposed to prolonged darkness produced 10.5% and 25% lower fibrous root fresh and dry mass, respectively, but similar foliage yield and harvest index (HI). ‘NCC-58’ produced an average of 31% greater storage root yield than that of ‘TU-82-155’ but the number of storage roots as well as % dry matter (%DM) were similar. ‘NCC-58’ also produced 31% greater fibrous root dry weight, whereas ‘TU-82-155’ produced a 44% greater HI. The significant interaction between prolonged darkness and cultivars for %DM of the storage roots showed that DM for ‘TU-82-155’ was 18.4% under prolonged darkness and 17.9% in the light. That for ‘NCC-58’ was 16.4% under prolonged darkness compared with 19.4% (14.8% greater) for plants that were not subjected to prolonged darkness. The evidence that there were no adverse impacts on storage root yield following the exposure to prolonged darkness suggests that the detrimental effects were below the detectable limits for these cultivars in response to the short perturbation in the available light and that sweetpotatoes would be hardy under short-term failure situations.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI10637-16 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/51/12/article-p1479.xml
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Review and analysis of over 40 years of space plant growth systems

2016

P. Zabel,M. Bamsey,D. Schubert,M. Tajmar

publication: Life sciences in space research

Abstract

The cultivation of higher plants occupies an essential role within bio-regenerative life support systems. It contributes to all major functional aspects by closing the different loops in a habitat like food production, CO2 reduction, O2 production, waste recycling and water management. Fresh crops are also expected to have a positive impact on crew psychological health. Plant material was first launched into orbit on unmanned vehicles as early as the 1960s. Since then, more than a dozen different plant cultivation experiments have been flown on crewed vehicles beginning with the launch of Oasis 1, in 1971. Continuous subsystem improvements and increasing knowledge of plant response to the spaceflight environment has led to the design of Veggie and the Advanced Plant Habitat, the latest in the series of plant growth systems. The paper reviews the different designs and technological solutions implemented in higher plant flight experiments. Using these analyses a comprehensive comparison is compiled to illustrate the development trends of controlled environment agriculture technologies in bio-regenerative life support systems, enabling future human long-duration missions into the solar system.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2016.06.004 pubmed: 27662782 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214552415300092
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How to establish a bioregenerative life support system for long-term crewed missions to the Moon and Mars

2016

Yuming Fu,Leyuan Li,Beizhen Xie,Chen Dong,Mingjuan Wang,Boyang Jia,Lingzhi Shao,Yingying Dong,Shengda Deng,Hui Liu,Guanghui Liu,Bojie Liu,Dawei Hu,Hong Liu

publication: Astrobiology

Abstract

To conduct crewed simulation experiments of bioregenerative life support systems on the ground is a critical step for human life support in deep-space exploration. An artificial closed ecosystem named Lunar Palace 1 was built through integrating efficient higher plant cultivation, animal protein production, urine nitrogen recycling, and bioconversion of solid waste. Subsequently, a 105-day, multicrew, closed integrative bioregenerative life support systems experiment in Lunar Palace 1 was carried out from February through May 2014. The results show that environmental conditions as well as the gas balance between O₂ and CO₂ in the system were well maintained during the 105-day experiment. A total of 21 plant species in this system kept a harmonious coexistent relationship, and 20.5% nitrogen recovery from urine, 41% solid waste degradation, and a small amount of insect in situ production were achieved. During the 105-day experiment, oxygen and water were recycled, and 55% of the food was regenerated. Key Words: Bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS)-Space agriculture-Space life support-Waste recycle-Water recycle. Astrobiology 16, 925-936.
doi: 10.1089/ast.2016.1477 pubmed: 27912029 link: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ast.2016.1477
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Rearing Tenebrio militor in BLSS: Dietary fibre affects larval growth, development, and respiration characteristics

2016

Leyuan Li,Michael Stasiak,Liang Li,Beizhen Xie,Yuming Fu,Danuta Gidzinski,Mike Dixon,Hong Liu

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

Rearing of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) will provide good animal nutrition for astronauts in a bioregenerative life support system. In this study, growth and biomass conversion data of T. molitor larvae were tested for calculating the stoichiometric equation of its growth. Result of a respiratory quotient test proved the validity of the equation. Fiber had the most reduction in mass during T. molitor′s consumption, and thus it is speculated that fiber is an important factor affecting larval growth of T. molitor. In order to further confirm this hypothesis and find out a proper feed fiber content, T. molitor larvae were fed on diets with 4 levels of fiber. Larval growth, development and respiration in each group were compared and analyzed. Results showed that crude-fiber content of 5% had a significant promoting effect on larvae in early instars, and is beneficial for pupa eclosion. When fed on feed of 5–10% crude-fiber, larvae in later instars reached optimal levels in growth, development and respiration. Therefore, we suggest that crude fiber content in feed can be controlled within 5–10%, and with the consideration of food palatability, a crude fiber of 5% is advisable.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2015.10.003 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576515003653
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Root restriction: A tool for improving volume utilization efficiency in bioregenerative life –support systems

2016

Thomas Graham,Raymond Wheeler

publication: Life sciences in space research

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate root restriction as a tool to increase volume utilization efficiency in spaceflight crop production systems. Bell pepper plants (Capsicum annuum cv. California Wonder) were grown under restricted rooting volume conditions in controlled environment chambers. The rooting volume was restricted to 500ml and 60ml in a preliminary trial, and 1500ml (large), 500ml (medium), and 250ml (small) for a full fruiting trial. To reduce the possible confounding effects of water and nutrient restrictions, care was taken to ensure an even and consistent soil moisture throughout the study, with plants being watered/fertilized several times daily with a low concentration soluble fertilizer solution. Root restriction resulted in a general reduction in biomass production, height, leaf area, and transpiration rate; however, the fruit production was not significantly reduced in the root restricted plants under the employed environmental and horticultural conditions. There was a 21% reduction in total height and a 23% reduction in overall crown diameter between the large and small pot size in the fruiting study. Data from the fruiting trial were used to estimate potential volume utilization efficiency improvements for edible biomass in a fixed production volume. For fixed lighting and rooting hardware situations, the majority of improvement from root restriction was in the reduction of canopy area per plant, while height reductions could also improve volume utilization efficiency in high stacked or vertical agricultural systems.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2016.04.001 pubmed: 27345202 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214552415300134
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Growth chambers on the International Space Station for large plants

2016

G.D. Massa,R.M. Wheeler,R.C. Morrow,H.G. Levine

publication: VIII International Symposium on Light in Horticulture

Abstract

The International Space Station (ISS) now has platforms for conducting research on horticultural plant species under LED lighting, and those capabilities continue to expand. The LSQUOVeggieRSQUO vegetable production system was deployed to the ISS as an applied research platform for food production in space. Veggie is capable of growing a wide array of horticultural crops. It was designed for low power usage, low launch mass and stowage volume, and minimal crew time requirements. The Veggie flight hardware consists of a light cap containing red (630 nm), blue, (455 nm) and green (530 nm) LEDs. Interfacing with the light cap is an extendable bellows/baseplate for enclosing the plant canopy. A second large plant growth chamber, the Advanced Plant Habitat (APH), will fly to the ISS in 2017. APH will be a fully controllable environment for high-quality plant physiological research. APH will control light (quality, level, and timing), temperature, CO2, relative humidity, and irrigation, while scrubbing any cabin or plant-derived ethylene and other volatile organic compounds. Additional capabilities include sensing of leaf temperature and root zone moisture, root zone temperature, and oxygen concentration. The light cap will have red (630 nm), blue (450 nm), green (525 nm), far red (730 nm) and broad spectrum white LEDs (4100 K). There will be several internal cameras (visible and IR) to monitor and record plant growth and operations. Veggie and APH are available for research proposals.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2016.1134.29 link: https://www.actahort.org/books/1134/1134_29.htm
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Advanced life support research and technology transfer at the University of Guelph

2017

M. Dixon,M. Stasiak,T. Rondeau,T. Graham

publication: Open Agriculture

Abstract

Research and technology developments surrounding Advanced Life-Support (ALS) began at the University of Guelph in 1992 as the Space and Advanced Life Support Agriculture (SALSA) program, which now represents Canada’s primary contribution to ALS research. The early focus was on recycling hydroponic nutrient solutions, atmospheric gas analysis and carbon balance, sensor research and development, inner/intra-canopy lighting and biological filtration of air in closed systems. With funding from federal, provincial and industry partners, a new generation of technology emerged to address the challenges of deploying biological systems as fundamental components of life-support infrastructure for long-duration human space exploration. Accompanying these advances were a wide range of technology transfer opportunities in the agri-food and health sectors, including air and water remediation, plant and environment sensors, disinfection technologies, recyclable growth substrates and advanced light emitting diode (LED) lighting systems. This report traces the evolution of the SALSA program and catalogues the benefits of ALS research for terrestrial and non-terrestrial applications.
doi: 10.1515/opag-2017-0013 link: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2017-0013/html
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Greenhouse module for space system: A lunar greenhouse design

2017

Conrad Zeidler,Vincent Vrakking,Matthew Bamsey,Lucie Poulet,Paul Zabel,Daniel Schubert,Christel Paille,Erik Mazzoleni,Nico Domurath

publication: Open Agriculture

Abstract

In the next 10 to 20 years humankind will return to the Moon and/or travel to Mars. It is likely that astronauts will eventually build permanent settlements there, as a base for long-term crew tended research tasks. It is obvious that the crew of such settlements will need food to survive. With current mission architectures the provision of food for long-duration missions away from Earth requires a significant number of resupply flights. Furthermore, it would be infeasible to provide the crew with continuous access to fresh produce, specifically crops with high water content such as tomatoes and peppers, on account of their limited shelf life. A greenhouse as an integrated part of a planetary surface base would be one solution to solve this challenge for long-duration missions. Astronauts could grow their own fresh fruit and vegetables in-situ to be more independent from supply from Earth. This paper presents the results of the design project for such a greenhouse, which was carried out by DLR and its partners within the framework of the Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative (MELiSSA) program.The consortium performed an extensive system analysis followed by a definition of system and subsystem requirements for greenhouse modules. Over 270 requirements were defined in this process. Afterwards the consortium performed an in-depth analysis of illumination strategies, potential growth accommodations and shapes for the external structure. Five different options for the outer shape were investigated, each of them with a set of possible internal configurations. Using the Analytical Hierarchy Process, the different concept options were evaluated and ranked against each other. The design option with the highest ranking was an inflatable outer structure with a rigid inner core, in which the subsystems are mounted. The inflatable shell is wrapped around the core during launch and transit to the lunar surface. The paper provides an overview of the final design, which was further detailed in a concurrent engineering design study. During the study, the subsystem parameters (e.g. mass, power, performance) were calculated and evaluated. The results of the study were further elaborated, leading to a lunar greenhouse concept that fulfils all initial requirements. The greenhouse module has a total cultivation area of more than 650 m² and provides more than 4100 kg of edible dry mass over the duration of the mission. Based on the study, the consortium also identified technology and knowledge gaps (not part of this paper), which have to be addressed in future projects to make the actual development of such a lunar greenhouse, and permanent settlements for long-term human-tended research tasks on other terrestrial bodies, feasible in the first place.
doi: 10.1515/opag-2017-0011 link: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2017-0011/html
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Greenhouse production analysis of early mission scenarios for Moon and Mars habitats

2017

D. Schubert

publication: Open Agriculture

Abstract

The establishment of planetary outposts and habitats on the Moon and Mars will help foster further exploration of the solar system. The crews that operate, live, and work in these artificial constructions will rely on bio-regenerative closed-loop systems and principles, such as algae reactors and higher plant chambers, in order to minimize resupply needs and improve system resiliency. Greenhouse modules will play a major role in closing not only the oxygen, carbon-dioxide, and water supply loops, but also by providing fresh food for the crew. In early mission scenarios, when the habitat is still in its build-up phase, only small greenhouse systems will be deployed, providing a supplemental food strategy. Small quantities of high water content crops (e.g. lettuce, cucumber, tomato) will be cultivated, improving the crew’s diet plan with an add-on option to the pre-packed meals. The research results of a 400-day biomass and crew time simulation of an adapted EDEN ISS Future Exploration Greenhouse are presented. This greenhouse is an experimental cultivation system that will be used in an analogue test mission to Antarctica (2018-2019) to test plant cultivation technologies for space. The Future Exploration Greenhouse is a high-level analogue for cultivation systems of early mission scenarios on Moon/ Mars. Applying a net cultivation area of 11.9 m², 11 crops have been simulated. Biomass output values were tailored to a tray cultivation (batch) strategy, where 34 trays (0.4x0.6 m) have been integrated into the overall production plan. Detailed work procedures were established for each crop according to its production lifecycle requirements. Seven basic crew time requiring work procedures (e.g. seeding, pruning and training, harvesting, cleaning, post-harvesting) were simulated. Two cultivation principles were the focus of the analysis: The In-Phase Cultivation approach where all trays start at the same time, and the Shifted Cultivation approach, where trays start in a specific sequential manner. Depending on the approach, different biomass output patterns emerged and were analysed with respect to crew consumption, crop shelf-life, and the risk of food spoilage. Crew time estimates were performed with respect to the overall production process, which resulted into 208.9 min per day for the planned cultivation area. When applying normal terrestrial worktimes, this equates to approximately 50% of a crew member day for system operation. Biomass and crew time results were analysed in relation to each other, creating specific productivity factors for each crop type. This way, future mission planning, crop selection, and greenhouse design studies can better tailor the implementation challenges of small greenhouse modules into the habitat infrastructure.
doi: 10.1515/opag-2017-0010 link: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2017-0010/html
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Evolution of space-based plant growth technologies for hybrid life support systems

2017

R.C. Morrow, J.P. Wetzel, R.C. Richter, T.M. Crabb

publication: 47th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Hybrid Life Support Systems (HLSS) integrate biological components and physical-chemical components with a goal to increase system closure while reducing power and mass in space habitats. Our efforts are directed toward developing precursor plant growth systems for HLSS, with a plan to evolve the technology from smaller ISS systems to large standalone systems that can provide significant levels of supplemental food production. This phased approach transitions plant growth technologies from ground-based development, to component, subsystem and system testing, to sortie mission testing of subsystem and subscale system technologies. This provides a point of departure for transitioning these technologies into larger integrated ground and flight testbeds to allow validation of system function and reliability prior to demonstration in a long-duration LEO or cis-lunar environment as being capable of meeting deep space/transit mission life support requirements. Plant growth systems were first flown in space in the 1960s and plant chambers flown since then have been used not only to conduct fundamental gravitational biology research but also to understand the capability of plants to play a role in human life support in space. As part of this process, component technologies for plant growth in space have been developed and refined, and testing of subsystems and systems on a small scale conducted on the ISS. A renewed emphasis has been placed on flight testing early precursors to plant based life-support through the development of small scale crop production systems such as the Veggie unit currently being used to grow edible crop plants on-orbit. As need for long duration spaceflight increases, these precursor crop production units will evolve to larger growing systems that may become components of HLSS for deep space use. One example is the Greenwall modular plant growth system developed to meet the growing-area requirements for NASA’s Exploration Life Support salad crop architecture.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/bcb80fa4-823b-4ad9-bd33-bbe7b3326677
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Plant pillow preparation for the Veggie plant growth system on the International Space Station

2017

G.D. Massa, G. Newsham, M.E. Hummerick, R.C. Morrow, R.M. Wheeler

publication: Gravitational and Space Research

Abstract

The first Veggie plant growth chamber was installed on the International Space Station in 2014. Crop plants can be grown in Veggie using plant pillows, small rooting packets that contain substrate, fertilizer, and germination wicks along with attached seeds. The pillows were designed to interface with the Veggie root mat reservoir watering system to provide a capillary water column to growing plants. In preparation for flight, methods of arcillite substrate washing, autoclaving, and drying were established to reduce dust and to provide a dry sterile substrate. A controlled released fertilizer mixed into arcillite substrate provides nutrition for plant growth. Methods of seed surface sterilization were tested for both germination and microbial contamination, and the optimum methods were determined for candidate flight crops. Plant pillows were prepared for flight by cutting and inserting germination wicks, filling with the substrate/fertilizer mix, and sewing closed. Following pillow filling, seeds were attached to the wicks, and the pillows were packaged for flight. Pillow preparation methods have been successfully tested in the VEG-01 hardware validation tests on the International Space Station with ‘Outredgeous’ lettuce and ‘Profusion’ zinnia, and in the VEG-03 test, using ‘Outredgeous’ lettuce and ‘Tokyo bekana’ Chinese cabbage.
doi: 10.2478/gsr-2017-0002 link: https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/gsr-2017-0002
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MELiSSA the minimal biosphere: Human life, waste and refuge in deep space

2017

Jeremy Walker,Céline Granjou

publication: Futures

Abstract

MELiSSA (Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative) is a long-term technology program of the European Space Agency. Its aim is to construct autonomous habitats in deep space, supplying astronauts with fresh air, water and food through continuous microbial recycling of human wastes. This article considers how anticipated futures of space travel and environmental survival are materialized in the project to engineer the minimal biosphere capable of reliably sustaining human life: a human/microbe association with the fewest possible species. We locate MELiSSA within a history of bio-infrastructures associated with colonisation projects: refugia in which organisms dislocated from their originary habitats are preserved. Analysis of MELiSSA’s sewage-composting technology suggests that the disordering complexity of human waste presents a formidable “bottle-neck” for the construction of the minimal biosphere, in turn suggesting our dependence on microbial communities (soil, the human gut) of potentially irreducible biocomplexity. MELiSSA researchers think of themselves as pragmatic enablers of space exploration, yet a wider family of space colonisation projects are now imagined in terms of the prospect that the Earth might cease to function as the minimal biosphere capable of supporting civilisation. MELiSSA’s politics of anticipation are paradoxical, promising technologies with which to escape from the Earth and through which it may be sustained.
doi: 10.1016/j.futures.2016.12.001 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016328716301380
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Past, present, and future of closed human life support ecosystems - A review

2017

C.E. Escobar, J.A. Nabity

publication: 47th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

During the development of human space exploration, the idea of simulating the Earth’s biosphere to provide human life support led to the convergence of space biology and the field of ecology to develop closed manmade ecological systems. A space habitat can be thought of as an ecological system of human beings exchanging energy and material within a spacecraft. In order to understand and control material and energy exchange processes, one must combine basic ecological principles with the knowledge gained through Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS) research to date. Experimentation in closed manmade ecosystems for spacecraft life support began in the 1960’s and over the years has shown biological life support systems to be realizable. By building on lessons learned, we can identify and prioritize future research objectives. Future development should focus on improved reliability of mechanical components, autonomous ecosystem control, closure of the carbon cycle (food generation and waste recycling), and the maintenance of long-term stability and robustness. A common need identified throughout all closed ecological life support systems (CELSS) research is mass and energy exchange models that enable intelligent autonomous control and design optimization. To validate mass balance models, integrated system level experiments are needed, but full-scale tests are time consuming and expensive. Small closed experimental ecosystems (microcosms) could allow observation of stability limits and response to perturbation with repeated short duration experiments. However, they must have proper scaling to represent larger system dynamics. Thus, the definition of non-dimensional ecological parameters (or invariant system descriptions) that define similarity between biological life support systems of different temporal and spatial scales is a potentially critical yet little studied research area that will enable prediction of mass and energy exchange for various system configurations and operating scenarios.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/2e2ec714-f932-45ef-8a29-0c957638c0a3
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Changes in leaf anatomical traits enhanced photosynthetic activity of soybean grown in hydroponics with plant growth-promoting microorganisms’

2017

Roberta Paradiso,Carmen Arena,Veronica De Micco,Maria Giordano,Giovanna Aronne,Stefania De Pascale

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

The use of hydroponic systems for cultivation in controlled climatic conditions and the selection of suitable genotypes for the specific environment help improving crop growth and yield. We hypothesized that plant performance in hydroponics could be further maximized by exploiting the action of plant growth-promoting organisms (PGPMs). However, the effects of PGPMs on plant physiology have been scarcely investigated in hydroponics. Within a series of experiments aimed to identify the best protocol for hydroponic cultivation of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], we evaluated the effects of a PGPMs mix, containing bacteria, yeasts, mycorrhiza and trichoderma beneficial species on leaf anatomy, photosynthetic activity and plant growth of soybean cv. 'Pr91m10' in closed nutrient film technique (NFT). Plants were grown in a growth chamber under semi-aseptic conditions and inoculated at seed, seedling and plant stages, and compared to non-inoculated (control) plants. Light and epi-fluorescence microscopy analyses showed that leaves of inoculated plants had higher density of smaller stomata (297 vs. 247 n/mm²), thicker palisade parenchyma (95.0 vs. 85.8 μm), and larger intercellular spaces in the mesophyll (57.5% vs. 52.2%), compared to non-inoculated plants. The modifications in leaf functional anatomical traits affected gas exchanges; in fact starting from the reproductive phase, the rate of leaf net photosynthesis (NP) was higher in inoculated compared to control plants (8.69 vs. 6.13 μmol CO₂ m^-2 s^-1 at the beginning of flowering). These data are consistent with the better maximal PSII photochemical efficiency observed in inoculated plants (0.807 vs. 0.784 in control); conversely no difference in leaf chlorophyll content was found. The PGPM-induced changes in leaf structure and photosynthesis lead to an improvement of plant growth (+29.9% in plant leaf area) and seed yield (+36.9%) compared to control. Our results confirm that PGPMs may confer benefits in photosynthetic traits of soybean plants even in hydroponics (i.e., NFT), with positive effects on growth and seed production, prefiguring potential application of beneficial microorganisms in plant cultivation in hydroponics.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00674 pubmed: 28529515 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2017.00674/full
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Gardening for therapeutic people-plant interactions during long-duration space missions

2017

Raymond Odeh,Charles L. Guy

publication: Open Agriculture

Abstract

Plants provide people with vital resources necessary to sustain life. Nutrition, vitamins, calories, oxygen, fuel, and medicinal phytochemicals are just a few of the life-supporting plant products, but does our relationship with plants transcend these physical and biochemical products? This review synthesizes some of the extant literature on people-plant interactions, and relates key findings relevant to space exploration and the psychosocial and neurocognitive benefits of plants and nature in daily life. Here, a case is made in support of utilizing plant-mediated therapeutic benefits to mitigate potential psychosocial and neurocognitive decrements associated with long-duration space missions, especially for missions that seek to explore increasingly distant places where ground-based support is limited.
doi: 10.1515/opag-2017-0001 link: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2017-0001/html
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Agriculture for space: People and places paving the way

2017

Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Open agriculture

Abstract

Agricultural systems for space have been discussed since the works of Tsiolkovsky in the early 20thcentury. Central to the concept is the use of photosynthetic organisms and light to generate oxygen and food. Research in the area started in 1950s and 60s through the works of Jack Myers and others, who studied algae for O2production and CO2 removal for the US Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Studies on algal production and controlled environment agriculture were also carried out by Russian researchers in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia beginning in 1960s including tests with human crews whose air, water, and much of their food were provided by wheat and other crops. NASA initiated its Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) Program ca. 1980 with testing focused on controlled environment production of wheat, soybean, potato, lettuce, and sweetpotato. Findings from these studies were then used to conduct tests in a 20 m2, atmospherically closed chamber located at Kennedy Space Center. Related tests with humans and crops were conducted at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in the 1990s. About this same time, Japanese researchers developed a Controlled Ecological Experiment Facility (CEEF) in Aomori Prefecture to conduct closed system studies with plants, humans, animals, and waste recycling systems. CEEF had 150 m2 of plant growth area, which provided a near-complete diet along with air and water regeneration for two humans and two goats. The European Space Agency MELiSSA Project began in the late 1980s and pursued ecological approaches for providing gas, water and materials recycling for space life support, and later expanded to include plant testing. A Canadian research team at the University of Guelph developed a research facility ca. 1994 for space crop research. The Canadian team eventually developed sophisticated canopy-scale hypobaric plant production chambers ca. 2000 for testing crops for space, and have since expanded their testing for a wide range of controlled environment agriculture topics. Most recently, a group at Beihang University in Beijing designed, built and tested a closed life support facility (Lunar Palace 1), which included a 69-m2 agricultural module for air, water, and food production for three humans. As a result of these studies for space agriculture, novel technologies and findings have been produced; this includes the first use of light emitting diodes for growing crops, one of the first demonstrations of vertical agriculture, use of hydroponic approaches for subterranean crops like potato and sweetpotato, crop yields that surpassed reported record field yields, the ability to quantify volatile organic compound production (e.g., ethylene) from whole crop stands, innovative approaches for controlling water delivery, approaches for processing and recycling wastes back to crop production systems, and more. The theme of agriculture for space has contributed to, and benefited from terrestrial, controlled environment agriculture and will continue to do so into the future.
doi: 10.1515/opag-2017-0002 link: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2017-0002/html
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Mechanical stimulation modifies canopy architecture and improves volume utilization efficiency in bell pepper: Implications for bioregenerative life-support and vertical farming

2017

Thomas Graham,Raymond Wheeler

publication: Open agriculture

Abstract

Mechanical stimuli or stress has been shown to induce characteristic morphogenic responses (thigmomorphogenesis) in a range of crop species. The typical mechanically stimulated phenotype is shorter and more compact than non-mechanically stimulated plants. This dwarfing effect can be employed to help conform crop plants to the constraints of spaceflight and vertical agriculture crop production systems. Capsicumannum(cv. California Wonder) plants were grown in controlled environment chambers and subjected to mechanical stimulation in the form of firm but gentle daily rubbing of internode tissue with a tightly wrapped cotton swab. Two studies were conducted, the first being a vegetative growth phase study in which plants were mechanically stimulated until anthesis. The second study carried the mechanical stimulation through to fruit set. The response during the vegetative growth experiment was consistent with other results in the literature, with a general reduction in all plant growth metrics and an increase in relative chlorophyll (SPAD) content under mechanical stimulation. In the fruiting phase study, only height and stem thickness differed from the control plants. Using the data from the fruiting study, a rudimentary calculation of volume use efficiency (VUE) improvements was conducted. Results suggest that VUE can be improved, particularly in terrestrial vertical agriculture systems that can take advantage of moderate height reductions by exploiting much greater vertical capacity in the production system. Mechanical stimulation can also improve VUE in spaceflight applications by reducing vertical system requirements or by expanding the species range that can be grown in a fixed production volume. Mechanical stimulation is also discussed as a microgravity countermeasure for crop plants.
doi: 10.1515/opag-2017-0004 link: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2017-0004/html
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VEG-01: Veggie Hardware Validation Testing on the International Space Station

2017

Gioia D. Massa,Nicole F. Dufour,John A. Carver,Mary E. Hummerick,Raymond M. Wheeler,Robert C. Morrow,Trent M. Smith

publication: Open Agriculture

Abstract

The Veggie vegetable production system was launched to the International Space Station with three sets of test plants for an initial hardware validation test, designated VEG-01. VEG-01A and B featured the crop ‘Outredgeous’ red romaine lettuce, while VEG-01C tested ‘Profusion’ zinnia plants for longer duration growth and flowering characteristics. Irrigation of plants in all three growth studies presented a challenge, with lettuce suffering from inadequate water and zinnia suffering from excess water. Direct plant pillow watering by crew members enabled plant growth, and returned samples from the first crop, VEG-01A, indicated that food safety was acceptable. VEG-01B plants at harvest were split to allow for on-orbit crew consumption as well as science sample return. Direct-watered zinnias suffered fungal growth and other physiological stresses, but two plants survived and these produced numerous flowers. The VEG-01 series allowed a large amount of data on system performance, human factors, procedures, microbiology, and chemistry of space-grown plants to be gathered. Observations from these tests are helping to drive future hardware modifications and provide information on food crop growth and development in a microgravity environment.
doi: 10.1515/opag-2017-0003 link: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2017-0003/html
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Initial assessment of the nutritional quality of the space food system over three years of ambient storage

2017

Maya Cooper,Michele Perchonok,Grace L. Douglas

publication: npj Microgravity

Abstract

Processed and prepackaged space food is the main source of nutrition for crew aboard the International Space Station, and likely will continue to be the main source of nutrition for future exploration missions. However, very little information is available on the nutritional stability of space foods. To better understand their nutritional stability, 24 micronutrients were measured in 109 space foods stored over 3 years at room temperature. Our analysis indicated that potassium, calcium, vitamin D, and vitamin K concentrations in the food may not be adequate to meet the recommended daily intake requirements even before storage. Decreases in vitamins A, C, B1, and B6 were observed during storage. Notably, vitamins B1 and C may degrade to inadequate levels after 1 year and 3 years, respectively. This assessment suggests that different technological approaches will be required to stabilize processed foods to enable spaceflight missions over 1 year.
doi: 10.1038/s41526-017-0022-z link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-017-0022-z
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A strategic approach for investigating light recipes for ‘Outredgeous’ red romaine lettuce using white and monochromatic LEDs

2018

M.A. Mickens,E.J. Skoog,L.E. Reese,P.L. Barnwell,L.E. Spencer,G.D. Massa,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Life sciences in space research

Abstract

To optimize crop production/quality in space, we studied various "light recipes" that could be used in the Advanced Plant Habitat currently aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. 'Outredgeous') plants were grown for 28 days under seven treatments of white (W) LEDs (control), red (635 nm) and blue (460 nm) (RB) LEDs, W + blue (B) LEDs, W + green (520 nm) (G) LEDs, W + red (R) LEDs, W + far red (745 nm) (FR) LEDs, and RGB + FR LEDs with ratios similar to natural sunlight. Total PAR was maintained near 180 µmol m^-2 s^-1 with an 18 h photoperiod. Lettuce grown under RGB + FR produced the greatest leaf expansion and overall shoot biomass, while leaves from WB and RB showed the highest levels of pigmentation, secondary metabolites, and elemental nutrients. All other supplemental treatments had varying impacts on morphology that were dependent on crop age. The WG treatment increased fresh mass early in the cycle, while WR increased biomass later in the cycle. The plants grown under WFR exhibited elongation of petioles, lower nutrient content, and similar shoot biomass to the W control. The findings suggest that supplementing a broad spectrum, white light background with discrete wavelengths can be used to manipulate total yield, morphology, and levels of phytonutrients in lettuce at various times during the crop cycle.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2018.09.003 pubmed: 30482283 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214552418300683
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LED lighting optimization as applied to a vitamin space plant growth facility

2018

Yu.A. Berkovich,I.O. Konovalova,A.N. Erokhin,S.O. Smolyanina,V.G. Smolyanin,O.S. Yakovleva,I.G. Tarakanov,T.M. Ivanov

publication: Life sciences in space research

Abstract

An algorithm of determining optimal LED lighting parameters for leafy crops (Chinese cabbage Brassica chinensis L. was taken as a model) in a vitamin space Plant Growth Facility is proposed. The lighting parameters to optimize were the level of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), red and white LEDs PPFD ratio and pulse repetition period with a fixed pulse length 30 µs. Optimal lighting parameters should allow achieving a high biomass yield per consumed light energy, as well as high vitamin C content in the crop biomass. A quantitative optimality criterion for estimating the lighting parameters quality is suggested. For Chinese cabbage crop the maximum value of this criterion was obtained at the following lighting conditions parameters: PPFD - 500 μmol m^-2 s^-1, red/white ratio - 1.5, and pulse repetition period - 501 µs.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2018.09.004 pubmed: 30797438 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214552418300324
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Conceptual development of a hybrid life support system integrating a biological wastewater processor with a plant growth unit

2018

W.A. Jackson, R. Morrow

publication: 49th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Hybrid life support systems which combine biological processes with physical/chemical systems can offer more sustainable overall life support architecture that reduces long term resupply costs and provides dis-similar redundancy increasing reliability. Hybrid life support systems can include numerous technologies but in general development of the biological portion has either focused on plant growth for food production and air processing or bacterial based bioreactors for wastewater treatment. Each system offers benefits to life support architectures but also individually have limitations and/or issues that reduce their overall benefits. Integrating plant based and bacterial based systems may provide significant synergies and reduce negative issues related to each technology individually. Our objective was to produce a conceptual design of an integrated biological wastewater processor with a plant growth system. The system would utilize a micro-gravity compatible bioreactor (MABR) to treat greywater (HC, Hygiene, Shower and/or Laundry) to supply the plant growth system with hydroponic make up water. The plant growth system would produce potable water as distilled plant condensate as well as proved salad and fresh vegetables. The MABR would remove organics from the wastewater which otherwise prevent its use as a hydroponic solution due to excessive bacterial growth that would occur. This would reduce the need to use potable water and would allow the production of an equal volume (up to ~40 kg/d) of distilled plant condensate. Excess CO2 from the bio-processor could be vented to the plant chamber reducing the CO2 load to the cabin and increasing growth rates, while O2 produced by the plant growth chamber could be used to support the MABR reducing consumption of stored or produced O2. We will present the design of the integrated system as well as an analysis of the mass, volume, and power requirements and compare these to non-hybrid life support systems and/or resupply.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/f894c355-d7f1-4541-ad33-ab06ee795ac3
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Status of the EDEN ISS Greenhouse after on-site installation in Antarctica

2018

D. Schubert, M. Bamsey, P. Zabel, C. Zeidler, V. Vrakking

publication: 48th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

EDEN ISS is a European project focused on advancing bio-regenerative life support systems, in particular plant cultivation technologies and procedures for space and planetary habitats. Essential Controlled Environment Agriculture technologies were designed, developed and integrated within a Mobile Test Facility, consisting of two interconnected 20 ft shipping containers. The main EDEN ISS cultivation area is called the Future Exploration Greenhouse and is designed as a single cultivation room with unified environmental settings and a 17:7 h light-dark photoperiod. During an analogue test mission at the German Neumayer III research station in Antarctica, the greenhouse provides a variety of fresh pick-and-eat crops for the overwintering crew of 10 members. This is of particular importance during their 6-7 months long isolation phase, when no plane or ship resupply of the station occurs. This paper provides an overview of the as-built design configuration and outlines the main steps of the assembly, integration and test phase that took place between October 2016 and September 2017. Further, insight into the preparation procedures for the Antarctic mission is given, which led to the final mission preparation and transport logistics of the test facility. In December 2017, the analogue mission officially started with the on-site installation of the facility at Neumayer Station III. The paper gives an overview of the on-site build-up phase and the activities involved in putting the facility into its nominal operations mode. The paper concludes with a lessons learned and off-nominal issue section, gathered during the first months of operation in Antarctica.
link: https://elib.dlr.de/121867
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LEDs for photons, physiology and food

2018

P. M. Pattison,J. Y. Tsao,G. C. Brainard,B. Bugbee

publication: Nature

Abstract

Lighting based on light-emitting diodes (LEDs) not only is more energy efficient than traditional lighting, but also enables improved performance and control. The colour, intensity and distribution of light can now be controlled with unprecedented precision, enabling light to be used both as a signal for specific physiological responses in humans and plants, and as an efficient fuel for fresh food production. Here we show how a broad and improved understanding of the physiological responses to light will facilitate greater energy savings and provide health and productivity benefits that have not previously been associated with lighting.
doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0706-x pubmed: 30464269 link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0706-x
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Growth, photosynthetic activity and tuber quality of two potato cultivars in controlled environment as affected by light source

2018

Roberta Paradiso,Carmen Arena,Youssef Rouphael,Luigi d’Aquino,Konstantinos Makris,Paola Vitaglione,Stefania De Pascale

publication: Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology

Abstract

In order to elucidate the effect of genetic material and light source and their interaction on plant performance of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), we studied the influence of two light sources, white fluorescent tubes (WF) and red blue LEDs with ratio 8:1 (RB) and two cultivars, ‘Avanti’ and ‘Colomba’ grown in phytotron, on growth, leaf photosynthesis and photochemistry and tuber quality. Under WF, net photosynthesis (NP) increased from the vegetative phase until flowering, then decreased during tuber bulking, with no differences between the cultivars. Lighting with RB increased the NP and the PSII maximum quantum use efficiency compared to WF. RB reduced stem elongation in both cultivars, as well as the number and area of leaves, and the aerial biomass per plant in ‘Colomba’, compared to WF. Conversely, tuber yield was higher in plants under RB light in both ‘Avanti’ and ‘Colomba’. Light source did not influence the tuber content of starch and total glycoalkaloids, while it affected differently in the cultivars the protein content and the glycoalkaloid profile. Our results highlight how interactions between light source and genotype need to be considered for potato cultivation in controlled environment under artificial lighting.
doi: 10.1080/11263504.2018.1549603 link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/11263504.2018.1549603
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Growing fresh food on future space missions: Environmental conditions and crop management

2018

Esther Meinen,Tom Dueck,Frank Kempkes,Cecilia Stanghellini

publication: Scientia horticulturae

Abstract

This paper deals with vegetable cultivation that could be faced in a space mission. This paper focusses on optimization, light, temperature and the harvesting process, while other factors concerning cultivation in space missions, i.e. gravity, radiation, were not addressed. It describes the work done in preparation of the deployment of a mobile test facility for vegetable production of fresh food at the Neumayer III Antarctic research station. A selection of vegetable crops was grown under varying light and temperature conditions to quantify crop yield response to climate factors that determine resource requirement of the production system. Crops were grown at 21 °C or 25 °C under light treatments varying from 200 to 600 μmol m^-2  s^-1 and simulated the dusk and dawn light spectrum. Fresh food biomass was harvested as spread harvesting (lettuce), before and after regrowth (herbs) and at the end of cultivation. Lettuce and red mustard responded well to increasing light intensities, by 35-90% with increasing light from 200 to 600 μmol m^-2 s^-1, while the other crops responded more variably. However, the quality of the leafy greens often deteriorated at higher light intensities. The fruit biomass of both determinate tomato and cucumber increased by 8-15% from 300 to 600 μmol m^-2 s^-1. With the increase in biomass, the number of tomato fruits also increased, while the number of cucumber fruits decreased, resulting in heavier individual fruits. Increasing the temperature had varied effects on production. While in some cases the production increased, regrowth of herbs often lagged behind in the 25 °C treatment. In terms of fresh food production, the most can be expected from lettuce, cucumber, radish, then tomato, although the 2 fruit vegetables require a considerable amount of crop management. Spread harvesting had a large influence on the amount of harvested biomass per unit area. In particular, yield of the 3 lettuce cultivars and spinach was ca. 400% than single harvesting. Increasing plant density and applying spread harvesting increased fresh food production. This information will be the basis for determining crop growth recipes and management to maximize the amount of fresh food available, in view of the constraints of space and energy requirement of such a production system.
doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2018.03.002 pubmed: 29780200 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030442381830164X
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Novel, Moon and Mars, partial gravity simulation paradigms and their effects on the balance between cell growth and cell proliferation during early plant development

2018

Aránzazu Manzano,Raúl Herranz,Leonardus A. den Toom,Sjoerd te Slaa,Guus Borst,Martijn Visser,F. Javier Medina,Jack J. W. A. van Loon

publication: NPJ microgravity

Abstract

Clinostats and Random Positioning Machine (RPM) are used to simulate microgravity, but, for space exploration, we need to know the response of living systems to fractional levels of gravity (partial gravity) as they exist on Moon and Mars. We have developed and compared two different paradigms to simulate partial gravity using the RPM, one by implementing a centrifuge on the RPM (RPMHW), the other by applying specific software protocols to driving the RPM motors (RPMSW). The effects of the simulated partial gravity were tested in plant root meristematic cells, a system with known response to real and simulated microgravity. Seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana were germinated under simulated Moon (0.17g) and Mars (0.38g) gravity. In parallel, seeds germinated under simulated microgravity (RPM), or at 1g control conditions. Fixed root meristematic cells from 4-day grown seedlings were analyzed for cell proliferation rate and rate of ribosome biogenesis using morphometrical methods and molecular markers of the regulation of cell cycle and nucleolar activity. Cell proliferation appeared increased and cell growth was depleted under Moon gravity, compared with the 1g control. The effects were even higher at the Moon level than at simulated microgravity, indicating that meristematic competence (balance between cell growth and proliferation) is also affected at this gravity level. However, the results at the simulated Mars level were close to the 1g static control. This suggests that the threshold for sensing and responding to gravity alteration in the root would be at a level intermediate between Moon and Mars gravity. Both partial g simulation strategies seem valid and show similar results at Moon g-levels, but further research is needed, in spaceflight and simulation facilities, especially around and beyond Mars g levels to better understand more precisely the differences and constrains in the use of these facilities for the space biology community.
doi: 10.1038/s41526-018-0041-4 link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-018-0041-4
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Understanding the Interactions between Biomass, Grain Production and Grain Protein Content in High and Low Protein Wheat Genotypes under Controlled Environments

2019

Vahid Rahimi Eichi,Mamoru Okamato,Stephan M. Haefele,Nathaniel Jewell,Chris Brien,Trevor Garnett,Peter Langridge

publication: Agronomy

Abstract

Grain protein content (GPC) is a key quality attribute and an important marketing trait in wheat. In the current cropping systems worldwide, GPC is mostly determined by nitrogen (N) fertilizer application. The objectives of this study were to understand the differences in N response between high and low GPC wheat genotypes, and to assess the value of biomass growth analysis to assess the differences in N response. Six wheat genotypes from a range of high to low GPC were grown in low, medium and high N, under glasshouse conditions. This experiment was designed around non-destructive estimation of biomass using a high throughput image-based phenotyping system. Results showed that Spitfire and Mace had higher grain N% than Gazelle and QAL2000, and appeared to demand more N to grow their biomass. Moreover, at low N, Spitfire grew faster and achieved the maximum absolute growth rate earlier than high N-treated plants. High grain N% genotypes seem able to manage grain N reserves by compromising biomass production at low N. This study also indicated the importance of biomass growth analysis to show the differences in the N responsiveness of high and low GPC wheat.
doi: 10.3390/agronomy9110706 link: https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9110706
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Wheat Space Odyssey: “From Seed to Seed”. Kernel Morphology.

2019

Baranova, Levinskikh, Gulevich

publication: Life (Basel, Switzerland)

Abstract

The long-term autonomous existence of man in extraterrestrial conditions is associated with the need to cultivate plants-the only affordable and effective means for both providing oxygen and CO₂ utilization, and providing one of the most habitual and energetically valuable products: plant food. In this study, we analyzed the results of the space odyssey of wheat and compared the morphological features of parental grains harvested from soil grown wheat plants, the grains obtained from plants grown in a specialized device for plant cultivation-the "Lada" space greenhouses during space flight in the ISS, and the grains obtained from plants in the same device on Earth. The seeds obtained under various conditions were studied using scanning electron microscopy. We studied the mutual location of the surface layers of the kernel cover tissues, the structural features of the tube and cross cells of the fruit coat (pericarp), and the birsh hairs of the kernels. It was found that the grains obtained under wheat plants cultivation on board of the ISS in near space had some specific differences from the parental, original grains, and the grains obtained from plants grown in the "Lada" greenhouse in ground conditions. These changes were manifested in a shortening of the birsh hairs, and a change in the size and relative arrangement of the cells of the kernel coat. We suggest that such changes are a manifestation of the sensitivity of the cytoskeleton reorganization systems and water exchange to the influence of particular physical conditions of space flight (microgravity, increased doses of radiation, etc.). Thus, the revealed changes did not hinder the wheat grains production "from seed to seed", which allows the cultivation of this crop in stable life support systems in near earth orbit.
doi: 10.3390/life9040081 pubmed: 31717710 link: https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/9/4/81
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Impact of plants in isolation: The EDEN-ISS human factors investigation in Antarctica

2019

Irene Lia Schlacht,Harald Kolrep,Schubert Daniel,Giorgio Musso

publication: Advances in Human Factors of Transportation

Abstract

The EDEN-ISS is a greenhouse project at the Neumayer Station III in Antarctica. For the first time, this greenhouse supplied the station with fresh food and enabled research regarding sustainable and autonomous food production from Earth to Space. To investigate the plants’ impact on the crew (biophilia), a debriefing, questionnaires, and behavioral observation were used. The results show that the crew was satisfied with the consumption of fresh vegetables, which are usually not available in Antarctica. All (9 of 9 crew members) also agreed on the positive psychological and physiological impact of the plants on their well-being. The investigation will be repeated with the next crew of the Neumayer Station III and will also be proposed for comparison at stations like Concordia.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-20503-4_71 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-20503-4_71
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New frontiers in food production beyond LEO. 49th Int. Conf. on Environ. Systems, ICES-2019-260.

2019

O. Monje, M.R. Nugent, M.E. Hummerick, T.W. Dreschel, L.E. Spencer, M.W. Romeyn, G.D. Massa, R.M. Wheeler, R.F. Fritsche

publication: 49th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

New technologies will be needed as mankind moves towards exploration of cislunar space, the Moon and Mars. Although many advances in our understanding of the effects of spaceflight on plant growth have been achieved in the last 40 years, spaceflight plant growth systems have been primarily designed to support space biology experiments where the mission ended after the completion of a series of experiments. Recently, the need for a sustainable and robust food system for future missions beyond LEO has identified gaps in current technologies for food production. The goal is to develop safe and sustainable food production systems with reduced resupply mass and crew time than current systems. New soilless water and nutrient delivery systems are needed to avoid constant resupply of bulky single-use porous media. Autonomous plant health and food safety monitoring systems are needed for to ensure that the food produced is suitable for supplementing crew diets with fresh and nutritious salad crops. New plant species and cultivars with improved contents of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals when grown elevated CO2 concentrations found in spacecraft. These improvements in food production technologies will enable the design of more robust and sustainable life support systems for manned exploration missions beyond Low Earth Orbit.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/13194488-5409-4c9f-8879-1e1006351e9c
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Cultivar-specific performance and qualitative descriptors for butterhead Salanova lettuce produced in closed soilless cultivation as a candidate salad crop for human life support in space

2019

C. El-Nakhel, M. Giordano, A. Pannicao, P. Carillo, G.M. Fusco, S. De Pascale, Y. Rouphael

publication: Life

Abstract

Plant production is crucial for space journeys self-autonomy by contributing to the dietary intake necessary to sustain the physical and psychological well-being of space colonists, as well as for contributing to atmospheric revitalization, water purification and waste product recycling. Choosing the appropriate cultivar is equally important as the species selection, since cultivar influences the obtained fresh biomass, water use efficiency (WUE), growing cycle duration, qualitative features and postharvest performance. Two differently pigmented butterhead Lactuca sativa L. (red and green Salanova) cultivars were assessed in terms of morphometric, mineral, bioactive and physiological parameters. The experiment was carried out in a controlled environment growth chamber using a closed soilless system (nutrient film technique). Red Salanova registered a biomass of 130 g at harvest, which was 22.1% greater than green Salanova, and a water uptake of 1.42 L during the full growing period corresponding to WUE of 91.9 g L−1, which was 13.8% higher than that of green Salanova. At harvest, green Salanova had accumulated more P, K, Ca, Mg and 37.2% more nitrate than red Salanova, which however had higher relative water content, leaf total and osmotic potential and higher SPAD index. Red Salanova also exhibited at harvest around two-fold higher lipophilic antioxidant activity and total phenols, and around six-fold higher total ascorbic acid levels. These latter characteristics improved the antioxidant capacity of red Salanova enabling it to use light more efficiently and deliver better overall performance and yield than green Salanova. Moreover, the higher phenolics and total ascorbic acid contents of red Salanova constitute natural sources of antioxidants for enriching the human diet and render it an optimal candidate cultivar for near-term missions.
doi: 10.3390/life9030061 link: https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/9/3/61
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Plant factory and space development, “Space Farm”

2019

Yoshiaki Kitaya

publication: Plant factory using artificial light

Abstract

In order to establish sustainable life-support systems for securing the long-term human life mainly with plant functions in space, development of space plant factories that can be utilized for cultivating healthy plants for several generations is necessary. This section outlines problems for growing healthy plants over a complete ontogenetic cycle in space farms. Possible effects of microgravity conditions on suppression of plant growth and reproduction were summarized in a view of heat and gas exchanges between plants and atmosphere in this chapter. The challenges regarding environmental control under microgravity conditions in space are also considered. It is concluded that proper control of air movement would be essential to enhance the heat/gas exchanges between plants and the ambient air and thus to promote growth of healthy plants, especially under microgravity conditions in space.
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-813973-8.00030-0 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128139738000300
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Space farming to sustain human life: more than 20 years of research at the University of Naples

2019

R. Paradiso, S. De Pascale

publication: Chronica Horticulturae

Abstract

The “UniNa team”, a group of high skilled scientists, operating within the Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences of the University of Naples Federico II, Italy, has been working for decades in challenging research on the cultivation of higher plants in space. The UniNa team, composed of the authors together with Giovanna Aronne, Carmen Arena, Veronica De Micco, Antonio Pannico and Youssef Rouphael, has expertise in agronomy, horticulture, plant biology, physiology and biochemistry, and food quality. Thanks to many projects funded in the last twenty years by the Italian Space Agency (ASI), the European Space Agency (ESA) and other institutions, the team has gained fundamental knowledge on several aspects of growing higher plants to sustain human life in space.
link: https://www.wannakeepit.com/system/files/chronica-documents/ch5902.pdf
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Radiometric method for determining canopy stomatal conductance in controlled environments

2019

Oscar Monje,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Agronomy

Abstract

Canopy stomatal conductance is a key physiological factor controlling transpiration from plant canopies, but it is extremely difficult to determine in field environments. The objective of this study was to develop a radiometric method for calculating canopy stomatal conductance for two plant species—wheat and soybean from direct measurements of bulk surface conductance to water vapor and the canopy aerodynamic conductance in controlled-environment chambers. The chamber provides constant net radiation, temperature, humidity, and ventilation rate to the plant canopy. In this method, stepwise changes in chamber CO2 alter canopy temperature, latent heat, and sensible heat fluxes simultaneously. Sensible heat and the radiometric canopy-to-air temperature difference are computed from direct measurements of net radiation, canopy transpiration, photosynthesis, radiometric temperature, and air temperature. The canopy aerodynamic conductance to the transfer of water vapor is then determined from a plot of sensible heat versus radiometric canopy-to-air temperature difference. Finally, canopy stomatal conductance is calculated from canopy surface and aerodynamic conductances. The canopy aerodynamic conductance was 5.5 mol m−2 s−1 in wheat and 2.5 mol m−2 s−1 in soybean canopies. At 400 umol mol−1 of CO2 and 86 kPa atmospheric pressure, canopy stomatal conductances were 2.1 mol m−2 s−1 for wheat and 1.1 mol m−2 s−1 for soybean, comparable to canopy stomatal conductances reported in field studies. This method measures canopy aerodynamic conductance in controlled-environment chambers where the log-wind profile approximation does not apply and provides an improved technique for measuring canopy-level responses of canopy stomatal conductance and the decoupling coefficient. The method was used to determine the response of canopy stomatal conductance to increased CO2 concentration and to determine the sensitivity of canopy transpiration to changes in canopy stomatal conductance. These responses are useful for improving the prediction of ecosystem-level water fluxes in response to climatic variables.
doi: 10.3390/agronomy9030114 link: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/9/3/114
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Growth of red pak choi under red and blue, supplemented white, and artificial sunlight provided by LEDs

2019

M.A. Mickens,M. Torralba,S.A. Robinson,L.E. Spencer,M.W. Romeyn,G.D. Massa,R.M. Wheeler

publication: Scientia horticulturae

Abstract

To explore lighting strategies for crop production in space, we investigated the impacts of light spectrum on morphology, biomass, and phytonutrients of red pak choi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis, ‘Rubi F1’) over a 28-day cycle. Light treatments were white light-emitting diodes (WLEDs) as a control, W + red (WR), W + green switched to red at 21 days (WG–R), W + far-red (WFR), red and blue (RB), and an LED-based artificial sunlight research module (ASRM). The photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was maintained near 180 μmol m−2·s-1 for all light treatments. Our results indicated that red pak choi grown under a narrow spectrum of RB light was most suitable for leaf expansion, biomass yield, and relative anthocyanin accumulation. The various broad-spectrum WLED treatments reduced yield, leaf area, and anthocyanin content. Supplemental G and FR augmented the reduction of growth and phytonutrients, however chlorophyll and anthocyanin levels recovered to levels comparable to the control within 7 days of switching WG to WR. The ASRM was used to assess direct sunlight as an alternative lighting option for plant growth in space. ASRM increased overall yield and specific leaf weight compared to WLED and supplemental treatments, and was similar to plants grown under RB in terms of fresh/dry weight, but lower in phytonutrients. Our results suggest both narrow and broad-band light sources can be used to manipulate morphology, phytonutrients, and partitioning of biomass in red pak choi.
doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2018.10.023 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030442381830726X
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Trouble-shooting performance failures of Chinese cabbage for Veggie on the ISS. 49th Int. Conf. on Environ. Systems, ICES-2019-328.

2019

S.E. Burgner, C. Mitchell, G. Massa, M.W. Romeyn, R.M. Wheeler, R. Morrow

publication: 49th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. cv. Tokyo Bekana) ranked highly for growth performance and nutritional composition among vegetable crops screened and subsequently down-selected as candidates for growth in the Veggie plant-growth unit on ISS for an astronaut pick-and-eat scenario of crew diet supplementation. On orbit, plants growing in Veggie are subjected to cabin environments of the ISS, which were designed for crew comfort, not necessarily for plant growth and productivity. During experiments in which ‘Tokyo Bekana’ was grown from seed to harvest in ground-based controlled environments mimicking as many environmental variables matching ISS cabin conditions as possible, it unexpectedly exhibited sub-par growth performance accompanied by chlorosis (yellowing) and necrosis (browning and drying) of leaves. This did not occur for other Veggie candidate vegetable-crop species. Systematic attempts to troubleshoot which environmental and/or cultural parameters caused or contributed to sub-standard growth and these stress symptoms involved issues related to the water/nutrient-delivery system used (PILLOWs vs. PONDs vs. DRUMs); issues pertaining to LED lighting (spectral ratios, intensity) from the ground-based Veggie analog chambers used (BPSEs); potential micronutrient toxicities of the Arcillite plant-growth medium used; controlled-release fertilizer doses and ratios; and ISS ambient cabin environmental conditions of relative humidity, carbon dioxide concentration, and air temperature. Individual systematic investigations of these parameters suggested some potential contributing factors or conditions, but results were not definitive, suggesting that interactions of multiple factors may have contributed to the sub-par growth performance of Chinese cabbage. Trouble-shooting efforts will be detailed including specific outcomes as well as side investigations to pinpoint key factors most limiting Chinese cabbage growth and performance both in Veggie on ISS as well as in ground-based trials using BPSe Veggie analogues. One lesson learned is that all controllable ISS-like environmental conditions must be mimicked as closely as possible during ground-based trials.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/f47e1863-db55-41ad-abd9-57b225774f91
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EDEN ISS: A Plant Cultivation Technology for Spaceflight

2019

Paul Zabel,Conrad Zeidler

publication: Handbook of Life Support Systems for Spacecraft and Extraterrestrial Habitats

Abstract

Despite the fact that high-closure bio-regenerative life support systems (BLSS) are not required for short-duration missions, it is well accepted that such systems are a required element for sustained human presence in space. Plants flown on various space-based platforms from Salyut to ISS have until now been used to further our understanding of the effects of the spaceflight environment on plant growth and to enhance the technology required for the maintenance of a sufficiently controlled on-orbit growth environment. While small-scale payloads have been sufficient to address these two aims, it is now becoming technically feasible to incorporate larger-scale on-orbit facilities that can provide fresh food on-board. The all-in-one approach of implementing higher plants in BLSS (air, water, waste recycling, as well as food production and improved crewmember well-being) has a huge advantage for future human space exploration missions. But this approach first needs to be tested on Earth and ISS in order to prove its reliability and applicability. The EDEN ISS partners built a space greenhouse test facility and operation started in February 2018 near the Neumayer Station III research station in Antarctica.
link: https://elib.dlr.de/126765/
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Crop readiness level (CRL): A scale to track progression of crop testing for space. 49th Int

2019

M.W. Romeyn, L.E. Spencer, G.D. Massa, R.M. Wheeler

publication: 49th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

The development of engineering technologies and hardware for aerospace applications is often tracked on a 1-9 scale of readiness or TRL, with a “1” representing very basic or fundamental principles, and a “9” being flight tested, functional hardware. Preparing to grow crops for supplemental food and eventual life support contributions on space missions faces similar challenges. Nearly 20 years ago, the concept of a “crop readiness level” was suggested at a bioregenerative life support conference held at Kennedy Space Center, but there was little follow up to this. We propose to revive this concept to track the preparation and testing of different crop species for eventual use in the unique environment of space. For the sake of uniformity, we recommend a 1-9 scale, with a “1” being just the identification of a potential crop, followed by some basic horticultural testing, cultivars trials, then testing growth and yield under various controlled environments, progression to more space-like environments and hardware, understanding the nutritional, organoleptic, and food safety aspects of the crop, initial testing in space, and a final stage of growing the crop for food in space (“9”). We attempted to make the scaling logical and progressive, but our main goal is to initiate a dialogue in the space, plant research community to develop a scale for assessing crop readiness.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/68d7f2eb-65c6-496c-bab7-e3246802bf29
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From Project Mercury to the Breadboard Project

2019

T.D. Dreschel, W.M. Knott, R.P. Prince, J.C. Sager, R.M. Wheeler

publication: International Conference on Environmental Systems (ICES 2019)

Abstract

NASA's Project Mercury began as a response to the cold war with the Soviet Union and had a number of goals: to place a manned spacecraft in orbital flight around the earth; to investigate man's performance capabilities and his ability to function in the environment of space and to recover the man and the spacecraft safely. One aspect of preflight testing included the use of an altitude chamber to test each capsule and allow the astronauts to engage in simulated missions within a vacuum environment. Flash forward to 1985. The Biomedical Operations and Research Office at Kennedy Space Center proposed to use the chamber for an unusual mission under what was known as the Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS)Breadboard Project. During 1985 into 1987, the chamber was converted to an environmentally-controlled, hydroponic plant growth chamber termed the "Biomass Production Chamber" and operated through late 2001.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20190027336
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Growing Plants in Space: Manipulating Medium Wettability to Create Different Saturation Conditions

2019

Ines Butz,Anna Herring

publication: Transport in Porous Media

Abstract

Growing plants under microgravity conditions in a space ship is essential for future long-term missions to supply needs for food and oxygen. Although plant growth modules for microgravity have been developed and tested for more than 40 years, creating optimal saturation conditions for plant growth in the absence of gravity still remains a challenge. In this study, we present results from a series of spontaneous imbibition experiments designed to approximate microgravity conditions by using density-matched fluid pairs. Porous media with patterned wettability characteristics are used to manipulate macroscopic fluid saturation and microscopic fluid interfacial configurations. These are compared to an additional experiment under Earth gravity, wherein we observe spontaneous imbibition of water into common potting soil. Patterning grains of different wettabilities under microgravity conditions proves to be an effective method to manipulate spatial distributions and saturations of fluids. These wettability patterns can be optimised to fine-tune residual fluid characteristics, e.g. non-wetting phase saturation, connectivity and interfacial area. Furthermore, we present tomographic evidence supporting previous work which was suggesting enhanced snap-off and disconnection of the gas phase in porous media under microgravity.
doi: 10.1007/s11242-019-01320-z link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11242-019-01320-z
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Potatoes as a crop for space life support: Effect of CO2, irradiance, and photoperiod on leaf photosynthesis and stomatal conductance

2019

Raymond M. Wheeler,Ann H. Fitzpatrick,Theodore W. Tibbitts

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) have been suggested as a candidate crop for future space missions, based on their high yields of nutritious tubers and high harvest index. Three cultivars of potato, cvs. Norland, Russet Burbank, and Denali were grown in walk-in growth rooms at 400 and 800 µmol m^-2 s^-1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), 12-h L/12-h D and 24-h L/0 h D photoperiods, and 350 and 1,000 ppm [CO₂]. Net photosynthetic rates (P_net) and stomatal conductance (g_s) of upper canopy leaves were measured at weekly intervals from 3 through 12 weeks after planting. Increased PPF resulted in increased P_net rates at both [CO₂] levels and both photoperiods, but the effect was most pronounced under the 12-h photoperiod. Increased [CO₂] increased P_net for both PPFs under the 12-h photoperiod, but decreased P_net under the 24-h photoperiod. Increased PPF increased g_s for both [CO₂] levels and both photoperiods. Increased [CO₂] decreased g_s for both PPFs for the 12-h photoperiod, but caused only a slight decrease under the 24-h photoperiod. Leaf P_net rates were highest with high PPF (800), elevated [CO₂] (1,000), and a 12-h photoperiod, while growing the plants under continuous (24-h) light resulted in lower leaf photosynthetic rates for all combinations of PPF and [CO₂]. The responses of leaf photosynthetic rates are generally consistent with prior published data on the plant biomass from these same studies (Wheeler et al., Crop Sci. 1991) and suggest that giving more light with a 24-h photoperiod can increase biomass in some cases, but the leaf P_net and overall photosynthetic efficiency drops.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01632 pubmed: 31921271 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2019.01632/full
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Dwarf tomato and pepper cultivars for space crops

2019

L.E. Spencer, M.E. Hummerick, G.W. Stutte, T. Sirmons, G.T. Graham, G. Massa, R.M. Wheeler

publication: 49th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Crops for space life support systems and in particular, early supplemental food production systems must be able to fit into the confined volume of space craft or space habitats. For example, spaceflight plant chambers such as Svet, Lada, Astroculture, BPS, and Veggie provided approximately 15-40 cm of growing height for plant shoots. Six cultivars each of tomato and pepper were selected for initial study based on their advertised dwarf growth and high yields. Plants were grown in 10-cm pots with solid potting medium and controlled-release fertilizer to simulate the rooting constraints that might be faced in space environments. Lighting was provided by fluorescent lamps (~300 umol m-2 s-1) and a 16 h light / 8 h dark photoperiod. Cultivars were then down selected to three each for pepper (cvs. Red Skin, Pompeii, and Fruit Basket) and tomato (cvs. Red Robin, Mohamed, and Sweet n’ Neat). In all cases (pepper and tomato), the plants grew to an approximate height of 20 cm and produced between 200 and 300 g fruit fresh mass per plant. In previous hydroponic studies with unrestricted root growth, Fruit Basket pepper and Red Robin tomato produced much larger plants with taller shoots. The findings suggest that high value, nutritious crops like tomato and pepper could be grown within small volumes of space habitats, but horticultural issues, such as rooting volume could be important in controlling plant size.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/e3930ab2-5716-4519-85e8-4d64a0754a4f
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Early seedling response of six candidate crop species to increasing levels of blue light

2019

Thomas Graham,Neil Yorio,Ping Zhang,Gioia Massa,Raymond Wheeler

publication: Life sciences in space research

Abstract

Light emitting diode (LED) lighting technology for crop production is advancing at a rapid pace, both in terms of the technology itself (e.g., spectral composition and efficiency), and the research that the technological advances have enabled. The application of LED technology for crop production was first explored as a tool for improving the safety and reliability of plant-based bioregenerative life-support systems for long duration human space exploration. Developing and optimizing the lighting environment (spectral quality and quantity) for bioregenerative life-support applications and other controlled environment plant production applications, such as microgreens and sprout production, continues to be an active area of research and LED technology development. This study examines the influence of monochromatic and dichromatic red and blue light on the early development of six food crop species; Cucumis sativa, Solanum lycopersicum, Glycine max, Raphanus sativus, Pisum sativum, and Capsicum annum. Results support previous findings that light responses are often species specific. The results also support the assertion that monochromatic light can interfere with the normal interaction of various photoreceptors (co-action disruption) resulting in intermediate and sometimes unpredictable responses to a given light environment. The nature of the responses reported inform both bioregenerative life-support designs as well as light quality selection for the production of controlled environment crops.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2019.03.001 pubmed: 31101154 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214552418300968
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Expanded set of criteria for sife support comparative assessment. Intl. Conf. Environ. Systems ICES-2019-329

2019

R.C. Morrow, J.P. Wetzel, C. Loyd

publication: 49th International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Currently the primary evaluation scheme for comparison of life support systems is Equivalent System Mass (ESM). ESM can be used to identify the most efficient or least costly-to-launch option when selecting a solution from a group of system alternatives. ESM specifically addresses and quantifies the resources required to deploy a system, including: mass, volume, power, cooling required, and crew time. ESM provides a framework for the weighted aggregation of these various categories to one number for easy comparison. However, ESM only address certain aspects of the overall system. In order to expand the set of characteristics used for comparative evaluations, a set of categories were developed to supplement ESM criteria. These additional categories and processes, termed Life Support Multidimensional Assessment Criteria (LSMAC), are used to augment traditional ESM comparison methods for evaluation and comparison of life support systems. Specifically, LSMAC addresses the following additional evaluation criteria: risk analysis, radiation, technology readiness level, manufacturing cost, human factors, reliability, maintainability, and un-crewed operations. The LSMAC framework defines each of these criteria, provides system scoring guidelines, and allows methods with which to compile a weighted aggregate score that considers all criteria. It is important to note that ESM is a criteria within the LSMAC framework and is given significant consideration. LSMAC analysis provides a more inclusive and robust picture of any one system while retaining the useful comparative power that ESM provides. The LSMAC assessment methodology could be used to aid technology evaluations of alternatives for future planned missions beyond Low-Earth Orbit (LEO), such as a cis-lunar Gateway or Mars Transport. This work is supported by NASA Advanced Exploration Systems, Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/31460cfe-feb5-44c9-b4ea-598db115334d
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Effects of supplemental far-red light on leafy green crops for space

2020

L.R.Wheeler Spencer, M. Romeyn, G. Massa, M. Mickens

publication: 2020 International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

The use of plants to provide food and eventual bioregenerative life support has been studied for nearly 50 years. A logical starting point for early missions like the International Space Station (ISS) is to grow leafy greens to supplement the crew’s diet of packaged foods. In an attempt to expand the list of potential crops, NASA conducted ground studies with eight leafy greens: ‘Dragoon’ lettuce, ‘Extra Dwarf’ pak choi, shungiku, ‘Barese’ Swiss chard, ‘Red Russian’ kale, ‘Toscano’ kale, ‘Amara’ mustard, and ‘Outredgeous’ lettuce, which has been used in prior ground and flight tests with the Veggie Plant Chamber. Plants were grown for 28 days under 320 µmol m-2 s-1 PPFD from LED lights, 3000 ppm CO2, and 23C to simulate an environment similar to the Veggie Plant Chamber aboard ISS. Half of the plants were given ~7 µmol m-2 s-1 and the other half, ~23 µmol m-2 s-1 of supplemental far-red (735 nm). Supplemental far-red light resulted in increased fresh mass yields for some species but not all. This could be due to the relative small amount of far-red photons even in the supplemental treatment. ‘Extra Dwarf’ pak choi and ‘Dragoon’ lettuce produced the highest yields (70-80 g FM/plant) under both lighting regimes. A more consistent response to supplemental far-red light was increased plant canopy cover and increased shoot heights, which may be a consideration for volume constrained systems in space.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/2e4e926f-5c33-49f0-82d5-2d74d5ece3d3
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Providing photons for food in regenerative life support: A comparative analysis of solar fiber optic and electric light systems

2020

J.M. Hardy, P. Kusuma, B. Bugbee, R. Wheeler, M. Ewert

publication: 2020 International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Providing photons for food production in a plant-based bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) is a significant component of total system cost. The energy to drive photosynthesis is the dominant factor in system net mass, power, and cooling requirements. These requirements have been historically converted to an Equivalent System Mass (ESM) to facilitate a trade studies among technology options. Previous trade studies were conducted more than 10 years ago and did not include advances in solar photovoltaics and light emitting diode technologies. We evaluated electric, solar fiber optic (SFO), and hybrid-based lighting systems for Lunar and Martian missions. The Electric to SFO ESM ratio is 1.09 for the Lunar base and 0.68 for the Martian base. This indicates that providing lighting from SFO has a slightly lower system mass on the Moon, and a 47% greater mass on Mars. A sensitivity analysis indicated that ESM ratios are sensitive to 1) the LED electric lighting efficiency and 2) length of the fiber optic cables. Other assumptions had smaller effects on the ESM ratios. Qualitative parameters important to system design are discussed for each mission and lighting system. Although the focus of this work is lighting supplied to plants, this can be applied to multi-purpose lighting in a spacecraft or habitat.
link: https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/49be2f92-c863-4c8d-8989-966e4f140f04
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Development of a photosynthesis measurement chamber under different airspeeds for applications in future space crop-production facilities 2020

2020

L. Poulet, M. Gildersleeve, L. Koss, G.D. Massa, R.M. Wheeler

publication: International Conference on Environmental Systems

Abstract

Space crop production systems are being developed to grow fresh produce in-situ to supplement the astronauts' diet, but the required ventilation rates for crops in different gravity environments remains poorly understood. The reduction or lack of buoyancy-driven convection in reduced gravity environments leads to impaired gas exchange (CO2 absorption, water transpiration and O2 release) at the leaf surface if no extra ventilation is provided, and this could lead to a reduction in biomass production in the long run. To better characterize the influence of different airspeeds on photosynthesis and be able to model this in low gravity, a chamber was designed to interface with a LI-6800 portable photosynthesis system. This paper details the design of this chamber, specifically made to measure whole-plant and small canopy gas exchange at different airspeeds. The fans provide turbulent mixing in the chamber to ensure that it behaves like a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) and that the residence time distribution (RTD) is the same for any fan speed; the computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model of the gas domain (the air in the chamber) hence uses a k-omega turbulence model. An airflow map of the chamber was created using anemometer measurements for the different airspeeds tested, and this was used together with the CFD simulation results to relate the experimentally measured fan outputs to actual airspeeds on top of an artificial plant. Environmental parameters (air temperature, relative humidity, CO2 level) are controlled by the LI-6800. This work was funded by NASA Space Biology through the NASA postdoctoral program / USRA.
link: https://hal.science/hal-04383862/
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Microbiological and Nutritional Analysis of Lettuce Crops Grown on the International Space Station

2020

Christina L. M. Khodadad,Mary E. Hummerick,LaShelle E. Spencer,Anirudha R. Dixit,Jeffrey T. Richards,Matthew W. Romeyn,Trent M. Smith,Raymond M. Wheeler,Gioia D. Massa

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

The ability to grow safe, fresh food to supplement packaged foods of astronauts in space has been an important goal for NASA. Food crops grown in space experience different environmental conditions than plants grown on Earth (e.g., reduced gravity, elevated radiation levels). To study the effects of space conditions, red romaine lettuce, Lactuca sativa cv 'Outredgeous,' plants were grown in Veggie plant growth chambers on the International Space Station (ISS) and compared with ground-grown plants. Multiple plantings were grown on ISS and harvested using either a single, final harvest, or sequential harvests in which several mature leaves were removed from the plants at weekly intervals. Ground controls were grown simultaneously with a 24-72 h delay using ISS environmental data. Food safety of the plants was determined by heterotrophic plate counts for bacteria and fungi, as well as isolate identification using samples taken from the leaves and roots. Molecular characterization was conducted using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) to provide taxonomic composition and phylogenetic structure of the community. Leaves were also analyzed for elemental composition, as well as levels of phenolics, anthocyanins, and Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC). Comparison of flight and ground tissues showed some differences in total counts for bacteria and yeast/molds (2.14 - 4.86 log₁₀ CFU/g), while screening for select human pathogens yielded negative results. Bacterial and fungal isolate identification and community characterization indicated variation in the diversity of genera between leaf and root tissue with diversity being higher in root tissue, and included differences in the dominant genera. The only difference between ground and flight experiments was seen in the third experiment, VEG-03A, with significant differences in the genera from leaf tissue. Flight and ground tissue showed differences in Fe, K, Na, P, S, and Zn content and total phenolic levels, but no differences in anthocyanin and ORAC levels. This study indicated that leafy vegetable crops can produce safe, edible, fresh food to supplement to the astronauts' diet, and provide baseline data for continual operation of the Veggie plant growth units on ISS.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00199 pubmed: 32210992 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00199/full
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On the Way to Mars—Flagellated Algae in Bioregenerative Life Support Systems Under Microgravity Conditions

2020

Donat‑P. Häder

publication: Front. Plant Sci.

Abstract

For long-term manned interplanetary missions it is not feasible to carry the necessary oxygen, food, and water to sustain the astronauts. In addition, the CO2 exhaled by the astronauts has to be removed from the cabin air. One alternative is to utilize photosynthetic organisms to uptake the CO2 and produce oxygen. In addition to higher plants, algae are perfect candidates for this purpose. They also serve to absorb wastes and clean the water. Cyanobacteria can be utilized as food supplement. Early ground-based systems include micro-ecological life support system alternative, closed equilibrated biological aquatic system, and the Biomass Production Chamber. The AQUARACK used the unicellular flagellate Euglena which produced the oxygen for fish in a connected compartment. A number of bioregenerative systems (AQUACELLS, OMEGAHAB) have been built for experiments on satellites. A later experiment was based on a 60-ml closed aquatic ecosystem launched on the Shenzhou 8 spacecraft containing several algae and a small snail living in adjacent chambers. Recently the Eu : CROPIS mission has been launched in a small satellite within a Deutschen Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) program. In addition to tomato plants, Euglena is included as oxygen producer. One new approach is to recycle urine on a bacterial filter to produce nitrogen fertilizer to grow vegetables.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01621 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2019.01621/full
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Growth and photosynthetic responses of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.cv. Tokyo Bekana) to continuously elevated carbon dioxide in a simulated Space Station “Veggie” crop-production environment

2020

Samuel E. Burgner,Krishna Nemali,Gioia D. Massa,Raymond M. Wheeler,Robert C. Morrow,Cary A. Mitchell

publication: Life sciences in space research

Abstract

Among candidate leafy vegetable species initially considered for astronauts to pick and eat from the Veggie plant-growth unit on the International Space Station (ISS), Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. cv. Tokyo Bekana) ranked high in ground-based screening studies. However, subsequent attempts to optimize growth within rigorous ISS-like growth environments on the ground were frustrated by development of leaf chlorosis, necrosis, and uneven growth. 'Tokyo Bekana' ('TB') grown on ISS during the VEG-03B and C flights developed similar stress symptoms. After lengthy troubleshooting efforts to identify causes of sub-par growth in highly controlled environments, the super-elevated CO₂ concentrations that plants on ISS are exposed to continuously (average of 2,800 µmol/mol) emerged as a candidate environmental condition responsible for the observed plant-stress symptoms. Subsequent ground-based studies found continuous exposure to ISS levels of CO₂ under Veggie environmental and cultural conditions to significantly inhibit growth of 'TB' compared to near-Earth-normal CO₂ controls. The present study investigated growth and gas-exchange responses of 'TB' to sub-ISS but still elevated CO₂ levels (900 or 1,350 µmol/mol) in combination with other potential stressors related to ISS/Veggie compared to 450 µmol/mol CO₂ controls. Shoot dry mass of plants grown at 450 µmol•mol^-1 CO₂ for 28 days was 96% and 80% higher than that of plants grown at 900 µmol•mol^-1 CO₂ and 1,350 µmol•mol^-1 CO_2, respectively. Leaf number and leaf area of controls were significantly higher than those of plants grown at 1,350 µmol•mol^-1 CO₂. Photosynthetic rate measured using a leaf cuvette was significantly lower for plants grown at 900 µmol•mol^-1 CO₂ than for controls. The ratio of leaf internal CO₂ concentration (C_i) to cuvette ambient CO₂ concentration (C_a) was significantly lower for plants grown at 450 µmol•mol^-1 CO₂ than for plants grown at elevated CO₂. Thus, continuously elevated CO₂ in combination with a Veggie cultivation system decreased growth, leaf area, and photosynthetic efficiency of Chinese cabbage 'Tokyo Bekana'. The results of this study suggest that 'Tokyo Bekana' is very sensitive to continuously elevated CO₂ in such a growth environment, and indicate the need for improved environmental control of CO₂ and possibly root-zone factors for successful crop production in the ISS spaceflight environment. Differential sensitivity of other salad crops to an ISS/Veggie growth environment also is possible, so it is important to mimic controllable ISS-like environmental conditions as precisely as possible during ground-based screening.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2020.07.007 pubmed: 34756234 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221455242030064X
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Wheat yield potential in controlled-environment vertical farms

2020

Senthold Asseng,Jose R. Guarin,Mahadev Raman,Oscar Monje,Gregory Kiss,Dickson D. Despommier,Forrest M. Meggers,Paul P. G. Gauthier

publication: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

Abstract

Scaling current cereal production to a growing global population will be a challenge. Wheat supplies approximately one-fifth of the calories and protein for human diets. Vertical farming is a possible promising option for increasing future wheat production. Here we show that wheat grown on a single hectare of land in a 10-layer indoor vertical facility could produce from 700 ± 40 t/ha (measured) to a maximum of 1,940 ± 230 t/ha (estimated) of grain annually under optimized temperature, intensive artificial light, high CO₂ levels, and a maximum attainable harvest index. Such yields would be 220 to 600 times the current world average annual wheat yield of 3.2 t/ha. Independent of climate, season, and region, indoor wheat farming could be environmentally superior, as less land area is needed along with reuse of most water, minimal use of pesticides and herbicides, and no nutrient losses. Although it is unlikely that indoor wheat farming will be economically competitive with current market prices in the near future, it could play an essential role in hedging against future climate or other unexpected disruptions to the food system. Nevertheless, maximum production potential remains to be confirmed experimentally, and further technological innovations are needed to reduce capital and energy costs in such facilities.
doi: 10.1073/pnas.2002655117 pubmed: 32719119 link: https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2002655117
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Hardware Validation of the Advanced Plant Habitat on ISS: Canopy Photosynthesis in Reduced Gravity

2020

Oscar Monje,Jeffrey T. Richards,John A. Carver,Dinah I. Dimapilis,Howard G. Levine,Nicole F. Dufour,Bryan G. Onate

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

The Advanced Plant Habitat (APH) is the largest research plant growth facility deployed on the International Space Station (ISS). APH is a fully enclosed, closed-loop plant life support system with an environmentally controlled growth chamber designed for conducting both fundamental and applied plant research during experiments extending as long as 135 days. APH was delivered to the ISS in parts aboard two commercial resupply missions: OA-7 in April 2017 and SpaceX-11 in June 2017, and was assembled and installed in the Japanese Experiment Module Kibo in November 2018. We report here on a 7-week-long hardware validation test that utilized a root module planted with both Arabidopsis (cv. Col 0) and wheat (cv. Apogee) plants. The validation test examined the APH's ability to control light intensity, spectral quality, humidity, CO₂ concentration, photoperiod, temperature, and root zone moisture using commanding from ground facilities at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The test also demonstrated the execution of programmed experiment profiles that scheduled: (1) changes in environmental combinations (e.g., a daily photoperiod at constant relative humidity), (2) predetermined photographic events using the three APH cameras [overhead, sideview, and sideview near-infrared (NIR)], and (3) execution of experimental sequences during the life cycle of a crop (e.g., measure photosynthetic CO₂ drawdown experiments). Arabidopsis and wheat were grown in microgravity to demonstrate crew procedures, planting protocols and watering schemes within APH. The ability of APH to contain plant debris was assessed during the harvest of mature Arabidopsis plants. Wheat provided a large evaporative load that tested root zone moisture control and the recovery of transpired water by condensation. The wheat canopy was also used to validate the ability of APH to measure gas exchange of plants from non-invasive gas exchange measurements (i.e., canopy photosynthesis and respiration). These features were evaluated by executing experiment profiles that utilized the CO₂ drawdown technique to measure daily rates of canopy photosynthesis and dark-period CO₂ increase for respiration. This hardware validation test confirmed that APH can measure fundamental plant responses to spaceflight conditions.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00673 pubmed: 32625217 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00673/full
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Biomass production of the EDEN ISS space greenhouse in Antarctica during the 2018 experiment phase

2020

Paul Zabel,Conrad Zeidler,Vincent Vrakking,Markus Dorn,Daniel Schubert

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

The EDEN ISS greenhouse is a space-analog test facility near the German Neumayer III station in Antarctica. The facility is part of the project of the same name and was designed and built starting from March 2015 and eventually deployed in Antarctica in January 2018. The nominal operation of the greenhouse started on February 7th and continued until the 20th of November. The purpose of the facility is to enable multidisciplinary research on topics related to future plant cultivation on human space exploration missions. Research on food quality and safety, plant health monitoring, microbiology, system validation, human factors and horticultural sciences was conducted. Part of the latter is the determination of the biomass production of the different crops. The data on this topic is presented in this paper. During the first season 26 different crops were grown on the 12.5 m² cultivation area of the greenhouse. A large number of crops were grown continuously throughout the 9 months of operation, but there were also crops that were only grown a few times for test purposes. The focus of this season was on growing lettuce, leafy greens and fresh vegetables. In total more than 268 kg of edible biomass was produced by the EDEN ISS greenhouse facility in 2018. Most of the harvest was cucumbers (67 kg), lettuces (56 kg), leafy greens (49 kg), and tomatoes (50 kg) complemented with smaller amounts of herbs (12 kg), radish (8 kg), and kohlrabi (19 kg). The environmental set points for the crops were 330-600 μmol/(m^2*s) LED light, 21°C, ∼65% relative humidity, 1000 ppm and the photoperiod was 17 h per day. The overall yearly productivity of the EDEN ISS greenhouse in 2018 was 27.4 kg/m², which is equal to 0.075 kg/(m^2*d). This paper shows in detail the data on edible and inedible biomass production of each crop grown in the EDEN ISS greenhouse in Antarctica during the 2018 season.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00656 pubmed: 32528506 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00656/full
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Substituting rar-red for traditionally defined photosynthetic photons results in equal canopy quantum yield for CO2 fixation and increased photon capture during long-term studies: implications for re-defining PAR

2020

Shuyang Zhen,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

Far-red photons regulate shade avoidance responses and can have powerful effects on plant morphology and radiation capture. Recent studies have shown that far-red photons (700 to 750 nm) efficiently drive photosynthesis when added to traditionally defined photosynthetic photons (400-700 nm). But the long-term effects of far-red photons on canopy quantum yield have not yet been determined. We grew lettuce in a four-chamber, steady-state canopy gas-exchange system to separately quantify canopy photon capture, quantum yield for CO₂ fixation, and carbon use efficiency. These measurements facilitate a mechanistic understanding of the effect of far-red photons on the components of plant growth. Day-time photosynthesis and night-time respiration of lettuce canopies were continuously monitored from seedling to harvest in five replicate studies. Plants were grown under a background of either red/blue or white light, each background with or without 15% (50 μmol m^-2 s^-1) of far-red photons substituting for photons between 400 and 700 nm. All four treatments contained 31.5% blue photons, and an equal total photon flux from 400 to 750 nm of 350 μmol m^-2 s^-1. Both treatments with far-red photons had higher canopy photon capture, increased daily carbon gain (net photosynthesis minus respiration at night), and 29 to 31% more biomass than control treatments. Canopy quantum yield was similar among treatments (0.057 ± 0.002 mol of CO₂ fixed in gross photosynthesis per mole of absorbed photons integrated over 400 to 750 nm). Carbon use efficiency (daily carbon gain/gross photosynthesis) was also similar for mature plants (0.61 ± 0.02). Photosynthesis increased linearly with increasing photon capture and had a common slope among all four treatments, which demonstrates that the faster growth with far-red photon substitution was caused by enhanced photon capture through increased leaf expansion. The equivalent canopy quantum yield among treatments indicates that the absorbed far-red photons were equally efficient for photosynthesis when acting synergistically with the 400-700 nm photons.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.581156 pubmed: 33014004 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.581156/full
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Far-red photons have equivalent efficiency to traditional photosynthetic photons: Implications for redefining photosynthetically active radiation

2020

Shuyang Zhen,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Plant, cell & environment

Abstract

Far-red photons (701-750 nm) are abundant in sunlight but are considered inactive for photosynthesis and are thus excluded from the definition of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR; 400-700 nm). Several recent studies have shown that far-red photons synergistically interact with shorter wavelength photons to increase leaf photochemical efficiency. The value of far-red photons in canopy photosynthesis has not been studied. Here, we report the effects of far-red photons on single leaf and canopy photosynthesis in 14 diverse crop species. Adding far-red photons (up to 40%) to a background of shorter wavelength photons caused an increase in canopy photosynthesis equal to adding 400-700 nm photons. Far-red alone minimally increased photosynthesis. This indicates that far-red photons are equally efficient at driving canopy photosynthesis when acting synergistically with traditionally defined photosynthetic photons. Measurements made using LEDs with peak wavelength of 711, 723, or 746 nm showed that the magnitude of the effect was less at longer wavelengths. The consistent response among diverse species indicates that the mechanism is common in higher plants. These results suggest that far-red photons (701-750 nm) should be included in the definition of PAR.
doi: 10.1111/pce.13730 pubmed: 31990071 link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/pce.13730
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Substituting rar-red for traditionally defined photosynthetic photons results in equal canopy quantum yield for CO2 fixation and increased photon capture during long-term studies: Implications for re-defining PAR

2020

Shuyang Zhen,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

Far-red photons regulate shade avoidance responses and can have powerful effects on plant morphology and radiation capture. Recent studies have shown that far-red photons (700 to 750 nm) efficiently drive photosynthesis when added to traditionally defined photosynthetic photons (400-700 nm). But the long-term effects of far-red photons on canopy quantum yield have not yet been determined. We grew lettuce in a four-chamber, steady-state canopy gas-exchange system to separately quantify canopy photon capture, quantum yield for CO₂ fixation, and carbon use efficiency. These measurements facilitate a mechanistic understanding of the effect of far-red photons on the components of plant growth. Day-time photosynthesis and night-time respiration of lettuce canopies were continuously monitored from seedling to harvest in five replicate studies. Plants were grown under a background of either red/blue or white light, each background with or without 15% (50 μmol m^-2 s^-1) of far-red photons substituting for photons between 400 and 700 nm. All four treatments contained 31.5% blue photons, and an equal total photon flux from 400 to 750 nm of 350 μmol m^-2 s^-1. Both treatments with far-red photons had higher canopy photon capture, increased daily carbon gain (net photosynthesis minus respiration at night), and 29 to 31% more biomass than control treatments. Canopy quantum yield was similar among treatments (0.057 ± 0.002 mol of CO₂ fixed in gross photosynthesis per mole of absorbed photons integrated over 400 to 750 nm). Carbon use efficiency (daily carbon gain/gross photosynthesis) was also similar for mature plants (0.61 ± 0.02). Photosynthesis increased linearly with increasing photon capture and had a common slope among all four treatments, which demonstrates that the faster growth with far-red photon substitution was caused by enhanced photon capture through increased leaf expansion. The equivalent canopy quantum yield among treatments indicates that the absorbed far-red photons were equally efficient for photosynthesis when acting synergistically with the 400-700 nm photons.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.581156 pubmed: 33014004 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.581156/full
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Controlling Stormwater Runoff That Limits Water Availability and Dryland Crop Productivity

2020

R. Louis Baumhardt,Justin R. Dockal,Grant L. Johnson,David K. Brauer,Robert C. Schwartz

publication: Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 09 October 2020

Abstract

Continued pumping for irrigation from the non-recharging Ogallala aquifer in Kansas and Texas is unsustainable. Reducing risks for dryland wheat (Triticum aestivum L) and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] production, which depends exclusively on precipitation to meet water demand is critical for future adoption. Stormwater runoff reduces the amount of precipitation available to crops, but management practices to minimize runoff concomitantly increase the opportunity time for infiltration and improve precipitation storage as soil water for crop use. Our objectives in this study were to evaluate tillage, slope and the effects of contour or with-slope farming on runoff, soil water at planting, and the growth and yield of wheat and sorghum grown in the 3 years wheat-sorghum-fallow (WSF) rotation. Long-term, 1983 to present, runoff was measured from gauged terraced and contour farmed fields managed in the WSF rotation with no-tillage (NT) or stubble-mulch (SM) tillage. We found significantly greater mean cumulative runoff during fallow for NT than for SM but only for the 1.8% terrace slopes., The corresponding soil water with NT increased by a significant ~27 mm over SM due to reduced evaporation but generally did not differ due to slope. Wheat yield decreased significantly as slope decreased from 1.8 to 1.2% but exhibited no yield response tillage. In contrast, grain sorghum yields were greater with NT than SM tillage residue management. Farming along the contour or slope manifested no differences in soil water, crop grain yield, or water use; however, they did increased significantly with no tillage for sorghum but not wheat. We conclude that management of tillage was more effective than slope effects in increasing water availability to crops because of evaporation reduction with crop residue.
link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-food-systems/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2020.533687/full
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Challenges for a sustainable food production system on board of the International Space Station: A technical review

2020

Petronia Carillo,Biagio Morrone,Giovanna Marta Fusco,Stefania De Pascale,Youssef Rouphael

publication: Agronomy

Abstract

The possibility of prolonging space missions—and consequently the permanence of humans in space—depends on the possibility of providing them with an adequate supply of fresh foods to meet their nutritional requirements. This would allow space travelers to mitigate health risks associated with exposure to space radiation, microgravity and psychological stress. In this review, we attempt to critically summarize existing studies with the aim of suggesting possible solutions to overcome the challenges to develop a bio-regenerative life support system (BLSS) that can contribute to life support, supplying food and O2, while removing CO2 on the International Space Station (ISS). We describe the physical constraints and energy requirements for ISS farming in relation to space and energy resources, the problems related to lighting systems and criteria for selecting plants suitable for farming in space and microgravity. Clearly, the dimensions of a growth hardware that can be placed on ISS do not allow to produce enough fresh food to supplement the stored, packaged diet of astronauts; however, experimentation on ISS is pivotal for implementing plant growth systems and paves the way for the next long-duration space missions, including those in cis-lunar space and to the lunar surface.
doi: 10.3390/agronomy10050687 link: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/10/5/687
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Development of a mechanistic model of leaf surface gas exchange coupling mass and energy balances for life-support systems applications

2020

Lucie Poulet,Claude-Gilles Dussap,Jean-Pierre Fontaine

publication: Acta Astronautica

Abstract

Growing plants in space during long-duration missions will be crucial to ensure functions such as food production, air revitalization, and water purification, and requires an in-depth understanding of plant growth and development processes in reduced gravity. In particular, gas exchange at the leaf surface is considerably reduced because of lack or reduction of buoyancy-driven convection, which can translate into reduced biomass production in the long run. To quantify this impaired gas exchange and biomass production, this study formulates a mechanistic model of these variables in low gravity following a chemical engineering approach. The emphasis here is set on short-term physical response of gas exchange at the leaf surface to gravity and airspeed. A mass balance with stoichiometric limitations enables the computation of mass exchange fluxes, and an energy balance relates them to heat transfer fluxes. Leaf surface temperature and biomass production in the form of dry mass and free water mass are then subsequently computed. The validation of this model on sets of independent data from published parabolic flight experiments is presented and a sensitivity study to different parameters highlights the existence of threshold values for gravity, ventilation, light, and stomatal conductance, which dictate the magnitude of changes in leaf surface temperature and photosynthesis rate. These results show that a mechanistic modeling approach coupled to a dedicated experimental approach are key to identify adequate growth conditions for plants in reduced gravity environments.
doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2020.03.048 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576520301764
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From physics to fixtures to food: current and potential LED efficacy

2020

Paul Kusuma,P. Morgan Pattison,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Horticulture research

Abstract

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have enabled a historic increase in the conversion of electric energy to photons, but this is approaching a physical limit. The theoretical maximum efficiency occurs when all input energy is converted to energy in photosynthetic photons. Blue LEDs can be 93% efficient, phosphor-converted “whites” 76% efficient, and red LEDs 81% efficient. These improvements open new opportunities for horticultural lighting. Here we review (1) fundamental physics and efficiency of LEDs, (2) the current efficacy of LEDs, (3) the effect of spectral quality on crop yield, and (4) the potential efficacy of horticultural fixtures. Advances in the conversion of photons to yield can be achieved by optimization of spectral effects on plant morphology, which vary among species. Conversely, spectral effects on photosynthesis are remarkably similar across species, but the conventional definition of photosynthetic photons (400–700 nm) may need to be modified. The upper limit of LED fixture efficacy is determined by the LED package efficacy multiplied by four factors inherent to all fixtures: current droop, thermal droop, driver (power supply) inefficiencies, and optical losses. With current LED technology, the calculations indicate efficacy limits of 3.4 µmol J⁻¹ for white + red fixtures, and 4.1 µmol J⁻¹ for blue + red fixtures. Adding optical protection from water and high humidity reduces these values by ~10%. We describe tradeoffs between peak efficacy and cost.
doi: 10.1038/s41438-020-0283-7 pubmed: 32257242 link: https://academic.oup.com/hr/article-abstract/doi/10.1038/s41438-020-0283-7/6445391
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Design of a module for cultivation of tuberous plants in microgravity: the ESA project “Precursor of Food Production Unit”’

2020

Roberta Paradiso,Antonio Ceriello,Antonio Pannico,Salvatore Sorrentino,Mario Palladino,Maria Giordano,Raimondo Fortezza,Stefania De Pascale

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

Plant cultivation systems for Bioregenerative Life-Support Systems in Space developed on Earth need to be tested in space, where reduced gravity alters the liquid and gas behavior both within the plant and between the plant and its surrounding environment, making the distribution of water and nutrients a critical issue. The ESA project "Precursor of Food Production Unit" (PFPU) aims to design a modular cultivation system for edible tuberous plants (such as potato and sweet potato) in microgravity, to be preliminary tested in ground conditions in the view of successive space application. Among the different modules of the PFPU demonstrator, the Root Module (RM) is the component physically hosting the plant and accommodating tubers and roots. This paper describes the step-by-step procedure adopted to realize the RM, including the design, the building, and the ground testing of its prototype. Specifically, the hydrological characterization of possible cultivation substrates, the set-up of the water distribution system, and the validation test of the assembled prototype in a tuber-to-tuber growing cycle of potato plants are described. Among six substrates tested, including three organic materials and three synthetic materials, cellulosic sponge was selected as the best one, based on the hydrological behavior in terms of air and water transport and water retention capacity. The water sensor WaterScout was successfully calibrated to monitor the water status in cellulosic sponge and to drive irrigation and fertigation management. The designed porous tubes-based distribution system, integrated with water sensors, was able to provide water or nutrient solution in a timely and uniform way in cellulosic sponge.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00417 pubmed: 32499789 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00417/full
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Microbiological and nutritional analysis of lettuce crops grown on the International Space Station

2020

Christina L. M. Khodadad,Mary E. Hummerick,LaShelle E. Spencer,Anirudha R. Dixit,Jeffrey T. Richards,Matthew W. Romeyn,Trent M. Smith,Raymond M. Wheeler,Gioia D. Massa

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

The ability to grow safe, fresh food to supplement packaged foods of astronauts in space has been an important goal for NASA. Food crops grown in space experience different environmental conditions than plants grown on Earth (e.g., reduced gravity, elevated radiation levels). To study the effects of space conditions, red romaine lettuce, Lactuca sativa cv 'Outredgeous,' plants were grown in Veggie plant growth chambers on the International Space Station (ISS) and compared with ground-grown plants. Multiple plantings were grown on ISS and harvested using either a single, final harvest, or sequential harvests in which several mature leaves were removed from the plants at weekly intervals. Ground controls were grown simultaneously with a 24-72 h delay using ISS environmental data. Food safety of the plants was determined by heterotrophic plate counts for bacteria and fungi, as well as isolate identification using samples taken from the leaves and roots. Molecular characterization was conducted using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) to provide taxonomic composition and phylogenetic structure of the community. Leaves were also analyzed for elemental composition, as well as levels of phenolics, anthocyanins, and Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC). Comparison of flight and ground tissues showed some differences in total counts for bacteria and yeast/molds (2.14 - 4.86 log₁₀ CFU/g), while screening for select human pathogens yielded negative results. Bacterial and fungal isolate identification and community characterization indicated variation in the diversity of genera between leaf and root tissue with diversity being higher in root tissue, and included differences in the dominant genera. The only difference between ground and flight experiments was seen in the third experiment, VEG-03A, with significant differences in the genera from leaf tissue. Flight and ground tissue showed differences in Fe, K, Na, P, S, and Zn content and total phenolic levels, but no differences in anthocyanin and ORAC levels. This study indicated that leafy vegetable crops can produce safe, edible, fresh food to supplement to the astronauts' diet, and provide baseline data for continual operation of the Veggie plant growth units on ISS.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00199 pubmed: 32210992 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00199/full
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Editorial: Higher Plants, Algae and Cyanobacteria in Space Environments

2021

Carmen Arena,Thomas Graham,Valerie Legué,Roberta Paradiso

publication: Frontiers in Plant Science

Abstract

Humanity is on the verge of permanently extending its footprint out into the solar system. Before permanence can be achieved, we must first fully understand and harness the power of autotrophic biological systems; systems that, in essence, will be our life-support technology beyond Earth.
It is with this thought in mind that this broad-based collection of research, engineering, and review articles is presented. The overall theme reflects spaceflight and ground-based space analog experiments and engineering concepts that contribute to the development and understanding of bioregenerative life-support systems that will enable long-duration human space exploration and colonization.

doi: 10.3389/fpls.2021.629014 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.629014/full
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Spatial characterization of microbial communities on multi-species leafy greens grown simultaneously in the vegetable production systems on the International Space Station

2021

Mary E. Hummerick,Christina L. M. Khodadad,Anirudha R. Dixit,Lashelle E. Spencer,Gretchen J. Maldonado-Vasquez,Jennifer L. Gooden,Cory J. Spern,Jason A. Fischer,Nicole Dufour,Raymond M. Wheeler,Matthew W. Romeyn,Trent M. Smith,Gioia D. Massa,Ye Zhang

publication: Life (Basel, Switzerland)

Abstract

The establishment of steady-state continuous crop production during long-term deep space missions is critical for providing consistent nutritional and psychological benefits for the crew, potentially improving their health and performance. Three technology demonstrations were completed achieving simultaneous multi-species plant growth and the concurrent use of two Veggie units on the International Space Station (ISS). Microbiological characterization using molecular and culture-based methods was performed on leaves and roots from two harvests of three leafy greens, red romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. 'Outredgeous'); mizuna mustard, (Brassica rapa var japonica); and green leaf lettuce, (Lactuca sativa cv. Waldmann's) and associated rooting pillow components and Veggie chamber surfaces. Culture based enumeration and pathogen screening indicated the leafy greens were safe for consumption. Surface samples of the Veggie facility and plant pillows revealed low counts of bacteria and fungi and are commonly isolated on ISS. Community analysis was completed with 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Comparisons between pillow components, and plant tissue types from VEG-03D, E, and F revealed higher diversity in roots and rooting substrate than the leaves and wick. This work provides valuable information for food production-related research on the ISS and the impact of the plant microbiome on this unique closed environment.
doi: 10.3390/life11101060 pubmed: 34685431 link: https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/11/10/1060
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Zinc-Doped Hydroxyapatite–Urea Nanoseed Coating as an Efficient Macro–Micro Plant Nutrient Delivery Agent

2021

Latheesha Abeywardana,Madhavi de Silva,Chanaka Sandaruwan,Damayanthi Dahanayake,Gayan Priyadarshana,Surani Chathurika,Veranja Karunaratne,Nilwala Kottegoda

publication: ACS Agricultural Science & Technology

Abstract

Various strains of the green alga Chlorella have been used extensively for study of photosynthesis and other physiological processes. Such work has been restricted almost exclusively to temperatures at or below 25°C. The choice of lower temperatures, probablymade on the basis of qualitative experience, is consistent with the ecological observation that "mlanyalgae do not survive a rise in temperature and thriveonly in cold waters".
doi: 10.1021/acsagscitech.1c00033 link: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsagscitech.1c00033
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Space Aquaculture: Prospects for Raising Aquatic Vertebrates in a Bioregenerative Life-Support System on a Lunar Base

2021

Cyrille Przybyla

publication: Front. Astron. Space Sci.

Abstract

The presence of a human community on the Moon or on Mars for long-term residence would require setting up a production unit allowing partial or total food autonomy. One of the major objectives of a bioregenerative life-support system is to provide food sources for crewed missions using in situ resources and converting these into the food necessary to sustain life in space. The nutritive quality of aquatic organisms makes them prospective candidates to supplement the nutrients supplied by photosynthetic organisms already studied in the context of space missions. To this end, it is relevant to study the potential of fish to be the first vertebrate reared in the framework of space agriculture. This article investigates the prospects of space aquaculture through an overview of the principal space missions involving fish in low orbit and a detailed presentation of the results to date of the Lunar Hatch program, which is studying the possibility of space aquaculture. A promising avenue is recirculating aquaculture systems and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, which recycles fish waste to convert it into food. In this sense, the development and application of space aquaculture shares the same objectives with sustainable aquaculture on Earth, and thus could indirectly participate in the preservation of our planet.
doi: 10.3389/fspas.2021.699097 link: https://doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2021.699097
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Persistence of Escherichia coli in the microbiomes of red Romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. ‘Outredgeous’) and mizuna mustard (Brassica rapa var. japonica) - does seed sanitization matter?

2021

Anirudha R. Dixit,Christina L. M. Khodadad,Mary E. Hummerick,Cory J. Spern,LaShelle E. Spencer,Jason A. Fischer,Aaron B. Curry,Jennifer L. Gooden,Gretchen J. Maldonado Vazquez,Raymond M. Wheeler,Gioia D. Massa,Matthew W. Romeyn

publication: BMC microbiology

Abstract

Seed sanitization via chemical processes removes/reduces microbes from the external surfaces of the seed and thereby could have an impact on the plants’ health or productivity. To determine the impact of seed sanitization on the plants’ microbiome and pathogen persistence, sanitized and unsanitized seeds from two leafy green crops, red Romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. ‘Outredgeous’) and mizuna mustard (Brassica rapa var. japonica) were exposed to Escherichia coli and grown in controlled environment growth chambers simulating environmental conditions aboard the International Space Station. Plants were harvested at four intervals from 7 days post-germination to maturity. The bacterial communities of leaf and root were investigated using the 16S rRNA sequencing while quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and heterotrophic plate counts were used to reveal the persistence of E. coli.
doi: 10.1186/s12866-021-02345-5 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12866-021-02345-5
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Design of an Artificial Intelligence-Based Commercial Photobioreactor for Optimal Algae Growth in Space Life Support

2021

Jinseong Lee,Jason Job,Clinton Sample,Emily Matula

publication: New Space

Abstract

Processing carbon dioxide (CO2) to generate oxygen (O2) is one of the challenges in developing life support systems for human presence in space. Algae is known for growing its biomass through photosynthesis, producing O2, and fixing CO2 400 times more efficiently than trees. Algae cultivation in a controlled environment requires maintaining proper conditions to extend healthy culture growth and life cycles. Terrestrially, relatively large facilities (raceway ponds) cultivate algae. This is not adequate for the integration into spacecraft or buildings due to mass and volume constraints. These large terrestrial systems do not fully utilize artificial intelligence (AI), based on data analysis, to achieve optimal growth. Hypergiant developed a small-scale bioreactor prototype as a commercial and open-source platform, focused on addressing life support systems in space and the growing concern of climate change. This autonomous system is grouped into several design aspects such as mechanical, electronics, sensors, and data monitoring. Sensor clusters collected measurements about the biological and environmental status. Then, AI algorithms utilized these data, such as the concentration of O2 and CO2, pH, turbidity, temperature, and optical density to automatically adjust the cultivation environment by cascade control. In this study, we formulate the CO2 absorption process model and define input and output parameters. We also present the results of testing an optical density sensor developed in-house. The results indicated that the optical density sensor has high accuracy and repeatability over a range of light intensities, capable of measuring a dense algal culture. The desktop dashboard presented the integrated platform, including input measurement data from the sensor array and resulting automatic output controls. Additional applications, including terrestrial use, and future work with this platform are included. AI helps to find optimal operational conditions for growing algae in multiple bioreactors within a distributed network, thereby maximizing the efficiency of CO2 sequestration and O2 production, while lowering power consumption. Refining this innovative bioreactor system helps realize a viable solution for closed-loop life support in a human space habitat and helps fight climate change by compensating for carbon footprint in various terrestrial settings.
doi: 10.1089/space.2021.0018 link: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/space.2021.0018
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Optimizing nitrogen fixation and recycling for food production in regenerative life support systems

2021

Noah J. Langenfeld,Paul Kusuma,Tyler Wallentine,Craig S. Criddle,Lance C. Seefeldt,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Front. Astron. Space Sci.

Abstract

Nitrogen (N) recycling is essential for efficient food production in regenerative life support systems. Crew members with a high workload need 90–100 g of protein per person per day, which is about 14 g of N, or 1 mole of N, per person per day. Most of this N is excreted through urine with 85% as urea. Plants take up N predominantly as nitrate and ammonium, but direct uptake as urea is possible in small amounts. Efficient N recycling requires maintenance of pH of waste streams below about 7 to minimize the volatilization of N to ammonia. In aerobic reactors, continuous aerobic conditions are needed to minimize production and volatilization of nitrous oxide. N is not well recycled on Earth. The energy intensive Haber–Bosh process supplies most of the N for crop production in terrestrial agriculture. Bacterial fixation of dinitrogen to ammonium is also energy intensive. Recycling of N from plant and human waste streams is necessary to minimize the need for N fixation. Here we review approaches and potential for N fixation and recycling in regenerative life support systems. Initial estimates indicate that nearly all the N from human and plant waste streams can be recovered in forms usable for plants.
doi: 10.3389/fspas.2021.699688 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspas.2021.699688/full
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Crew time in a space greenhouse using data from analog missions and Veggie

2021

Lucie Poulet,Conrad Zeidler,Jess Bunchek,Paul Zabel,Vincent Vrakking,Daniel Schubert,Gioia Massa,Raymond Wheeler

publication: Life sciences in space research

Abstract

Crew time requirements for human space exploration missions is as critical as mass, energy, and volume requirements. However, it has only been sporadically recorded in past analog and space missions for plant cultivation. In this retrospective study on crew time data collected in various analog facilities and on the Veggie hardware on ISS, we propose a methodology for efficient categorizing and reporting of crew time in space plant growth systems. Crew time is difficult to capture in operational environments, and this study intends to harmonize these efforts among different locations. This article also provides a current database for required crew time in several plant growth hardware and facilities, on the ISS, and on Earth. These data could serve mission planners as a baseline to establish standardized activities and extrapolate crew time needed to operate future plant growth units. Finally, we discuss how crew time needed for plant cultivation will change in future exploration missions, based on choices made for plant species, watering systems, level of automation, and use of virtual assistants, among others. Crew time will need to be accounted for as a decisive factor to design future space greenhouse modules.
doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2021.08.002 pubmed: 34689942 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214552421000626
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Space flight cultivation for radish (Raphanus sativus) in the Advanced Plant Habitat

2021

Susan John,Farid Abou-Issa,Karl H. Hasenstein

publication: Gravitational and Space Research

Abstract

In preparation of a flight experiment, ground-based studies for optimizing the growth of radishes (Raphanus sativus) were conducted at the ground-based Advanced Plant Habitat (APH) unit at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida. The APH provides a large, environmentally controlled chamber that has been used to grow various plants, such as Arabidopsis, wheat, peppers, and now radish. In support of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)'s goals to provide astronauts with fresh vegetables and fruits in a confined space, it is important to extend the cultivation period to produce substantial biomass. We selected Raphanus sativus cv. Cherry Belle as test variety both for preliminary tests and flight experiments because it provides edible biomass in as few as four weeks, has desirable secondary metabolites (glucosinolates), is rich in minerals, and requires relatively little space. We report our strategies to optimize the growth substrate, watering regimen, light settings, and planting design that produces good-sized radishes, minimizes competition, and allows for easy harvesting. This information will be applicable for growth optimization of other crop plants that will be grown in the APH or other future plant growth facilities.
doi: 10.2478/gsr-2021-0010 link: https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/gsr-2021-0010
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Improving the predictive value of phytochrome photoequilibrium: consideration of spectral distortion within a leaf

2021

Paul Kusuma,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

The ratio of active phytochrome (Pfr) to total phytochrome (Pr + Pfr), called phytochrome photo-equilibrium (PPE; also called phytochrome photostationary state, PSS) has been used to explain shade avoidance responses in both natural and controlled environments. PPE is commonly estimated using measurements of the spectral photon distribution (SPD) above the canopy and photoconversion coefficients. This approach has effectively predicted morphological responses when only red and far-red (FR) photon fluxes have varied, but controlled environment research often utilizes unique ratios of wavelengths so a more rigorous evaluation of the predictive ability of PPE on morphology is warranted. Estimations of PPE have rarely incorporated the optical effects of spectral distortion within a leaf caused by pigment absorbance and photon scattering. We studied stem elongation rate in the model plant cucumber under diverse spectral backgrounds over a range of one to 45% FR (total photon flux density, 400-750 nm, of 400 μmol m^-2 s^-1) and found that PPE was not predictive when blue and green varied. Preferential absorption of red and blue photons by chlorophyll results in an SPD that is relatively enriched in green and FR at the phytochrome molecule within a cell. This can be described by spectral distortion functions for specific layers of a leaf. Multiplying the photoconversion coefficients by these distortion functions yields photoconversion weighting factors that predict phytochrome conversion at the site of photon perception within leaf tissue. Incorporating spectral distortion improved the predictive value of PPE when phytochrome was assumed to be homogeneously distributed within the whole leaf. In a supporting study, the herbicide norflurazon was used to remove chlorophyll in seedlings. Using distortion functions unique to either green or white cotyledons, we came to the same conclusions as with whole plants in the longer-term study. Leaves of most species have similar spectral absorbance so this approach for predicting PPE should be broadly applicable. We provide a table of the photoconversion weighting factors. Our analysis indicates that the simple, intuitive ratio of FR (700-750 nm) to total photon flux (far-red fraction) is also a reliable predictor of morphological responses like stem length.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2021.596943 pubmed: 34108976 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.596943/full
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Far-red Fraction: An improved metric for characterizing phytochrome effects on morphology

2021

Paul Kusuma,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science

Abstract

Phytochrome, a well-studied photoreceptor in plants, primarily absorbs in the red (R) and far-red (FR) regions and is responsible for the perception of shade and subsequent morphological responses. Experiments performed in controlled environments have widely used the R:FR ratio to simulate the natural environment and used phytochrome photoequilibrium (PPE) to simulate the activity of phytochrome. We review why PPE may be an unreliable metric, including differences in weighting factors, multiple phytochromes, nonphotochemical reversions, intermediates, variations in the total pool of phytochrome, and screening by other pigments. We suggest that environmental signals based on R and FR photon fluxes are a better predictor of plant shape than the more complex PPE model. However, the R:FR ratio is nonintuitive and can approach infinity under electric lights, which makes it difficult to extrapolate from studies in controlled environments to the field. Here we describe an improved metric: the FR fraction (FR/R+FR) with a range from 0 to 1. This is a more intuitive metric both under electric lights and in the field compared with other ratios because it is positively correlated with phytochrome-mediated morphological responses. We demonstrate the reliability of this new metric by reanalyzing previously published data.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS05002-20 link: https://journals.ashs.org/downloadpdf/display/journals/jashs/aop/article-10.21273-JASHS05002-20/a...
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Establishment of a closed artificial ecosystem to ensure human long-term survival on the moon

2021

Yuming Fu,Zhihao Yi,Yao Du,Hui Liu,Beizhen Xie,Hong Liu

publication: BioRxiv

Abstract

Bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) is a critical technology maintaining long-term human survival on the Moon or other extraterrestrial bodies. In the current study, we carried out a 370-day integrated high-closure experiment (“Lunar Palace 365” experiment) on the Earth in an upgraded ground-based BLSS experimental facility called “Lunar Palace 1”. This experiment was designed to develop techniques to run and adjust system stability under long-term operation and crew shift change conditions. Eight volunteering crew members were divided into two groups with three time phases: Group I stayed in the cabin for the initial 60-day phase; Group II inhabited the cabin instead for a record-breaking duration of 200 days as the second phase; Group I re-entered the cabin, replaced Group II and stayed for the last 105 days. Our results demonstrated the BLSS had excellent stability with a material closure degree of 98.2%. Levels of O2, CO2 and trace harmful gases were well controlled within ranges optimal for crew health and plant production. The system exhibited a strong robustness and could quickly minimize effects of disturbances through self-feedback adjustments. The efficiency of plant production completely met the crew’s need of plant-based food. The purification efficiency of domestic and sanitary wastewater was up to irrigation standards, and the recovery rate of urine and solid waste achieved 99.7% and 67%, respectively. These results are valuable for further optimization of the BLSS in a lunar base and computer simulations of similar systems.
doi: 10.1101/2021.01.12.426282 link: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.01.12.426282.abstract
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Optimizing spectral quality with quantum dots to enhance crop yield in controlled environments

2021

Charles H. Parrish,Damon Hebert,Aaron Jackson,Karthik Ramasamy,Hunter McDaniel,Gene A. Giacomelli,Matthew R. Bergren

publication: Communications biology

Abstract

Bioregenerative life-support systems (BLSS) involving plants will be required to realize self-sustaining human settlements beyond Earth. To improve plant productivity in BLSS, the quality of the solar spectrum can be modified by lightweight, luminescent films. CuInS₂/ZnS quantum dot (QD) films were used to down-convert ultraviolet/blue photons to red emissions centered at 600 and 660 nm, resulting in increased biomass accumulation in red romaine lettuce. All plant growth parameters, except for spectral quality, were uniform across three production environments. Lettuce grown under the 600 and 660 nm-emitting QD films respectively increased edible dry mass (13 and 9%), edible fresh mass (11% each), and total leaf area (8 and 13%) compared with under a control film containing no QDs. Spectral modifications by the luminescent QD films improved photosynthetic efficiency in lettuce and could enhance productivity in greenhouses on Earth, or in space where, further conversion is expected from greater availability of ultraviolet photons.
doi: 10.1038/s42003-020-01646-1 pubmed: 33504914 link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-020-01646-1
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Supplemental food production with plants: A review of NASA research

2021

Christina M. Johnson,Haley O. Boles,LaShelle E. Spencer,Lucie Poulet,Matthew Romeyn,Jess M. Bunchek,Ralph Fritsche,Gioia D. Massa,Aubrie O’Rourke,Raymond M. Wheeler

publication: Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences

Abstract

Bioregenerative life-support systems for space have been investigated for 60 years, and plants and other photosynthetic organisms are central to this concept for their ability to produce food and O2, remove CO2, and help recycle wastewater. Many of the studies targeted larger scale systems that might be used for planetary surface missions, with estimates ranging from about 40 to 50 m2 (or more) of crop growing area needed per person. But early space missions will not have these volumes available for crop growth. How can plants be used in the interim, where perhaps <5 m2 of growing area might be available? One option is to grow plants as supplemental, fresh foods. This could improve the quality and diversity of the meals on the International Space Station or on the Lunar surface, and supply important nutrients to the astronauts for missions like Mars transit, and longer duration Martian surface missions. Although plant chambers for supplemental food production would be relatively small, they could provide the bioregenerative research community with platforms for testing different crops in a space environment and serve as a stepping stone to build larger bioregenerative systems for future missions. Here we review some of NASA’s research and development (ground and spaceflight) targeting fresh food production systems for space. We encourage readers to also look into the extensive work by other space agencies and universities around the world on this same topic.
doi: 10.3389/fspas.2021.734343 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspas.2021.734343/full
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Why Far-Red Photons Should Be Included in the Definition of Photosynthetic Photons and the Measurement of Horticultural Fixture Efficacy

2021

Shuyang Zhen,Marc van Iersel,Bruce Bugbee

publication: Frontiers in Plant Science

Abstract

Photons above 700 nm have minimal photosynthetic activity when applied alone (Emerson and Lewis, 1943; McCree, 1971) and have thus been excluded from the definition of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR; 400 to 700 nm). However, those longer-wavelength photons have synergistic activity with photons in the PAR range (Emerson et al., 1957). Recent studies using lasers and LEDs with narrow-band spectra have provided new insights into the photosynthetic value of far-red photons (here defined as 700 to 750 nm). Far-red photons preferentially excite photosystem I (Zhen and van Iersel, 2017), at wavelengths at least up to 732 nm (Zhen et al., 2019). In crop-plant communities, far-red photons elicit photosynthetic activity equal to PAR photons when delivered at up to 30% of the total photon flux (Zhen and Bugbee, 2020a). The quantum yield of plant canopies (per 400 to 750 nm photons) is similar under blue + red or white LEDs with and without a 15% far-red photon substitution (Zhen and Bugbee, 2020b). The definition of photosynthetic photons, and efficacy measurements of horticultural fixtures, need to include far-red photons because this extended range (referred to as ePAR) better predicts photosynthesis.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2021.693445 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.693445/full
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LEDs for extraterrestrial agriculture: Tradeoffs between color perception and photon efficacy

2021

P. Kusuma, B. Fatzinger, B. Bugbee, W. Soer, R. Wheeler

publication: Technical Memorandum

Abstract

Growing food on extraterrestrial surfaces requires the development of efficient lighting technologies to provide photons for photosynthesis. Here we discuss the development and demonstration of LED panels with a high color fidelity index that can achieve a photon efficacy of 3.6 µmol of photons per joule of input electrical energy. As of June 2021, this is higher than commercial LED fixtures on Earth. This high efficacy makes LED technology a preferred option to solar fiber optics for extraterrestrial applications. Increasing the fraction of red LEDs and photons increases the efficacy but decreases the perception of color.
link: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20210016720
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Bioregenerative systems to sustain human life in space: The research on higher plants

2021

Roberta Paradiso,Stefania De Pascale

publication: Italus Hortus

Abstract

Human exploration beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO) will require technologies regenerating resources like air and water, and producing fresh food while recycling consumables and waste. Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSSs) are artificial ecosystems in which appropriately selected organisms, including bacteria, algae and higher plants, are assembled in consecutive steps of recycling, to reconvert the crew waste into oxygen, potable water and edible biomass. Higher plants are considered the most promising biological regenerators to accomplish these functions, thanks to their complementary relationship with humans, however, cultivation in Space requires the knowledge of their response to Space factors (e.g. altered gravity and ionizing radiation) and specific cultivation conditions (e.g. controlled environment, hydroponic systems). This article summarises the most relevant research on higher plants achieved in view of their cultivation in an extraterrestrial environment.
doi: 10.26353/j.itahort/2021.2.0121 link: https://www.soihs.it/public/02/22/IH2021_2_01%20Paradiso.pdf
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Hydroponic Food Production: A Definitive Guidebook for the Advanced Home Gardener and the Commercial Hydroponic Grower

2022

H.M. Resh

publication: Hydroponic Food Production (BOOK)

Abstract

The eighth edition of Hydroponic Food Production: A Definitive Guidebook for the Advanced Home Gardener and the Commercial Hydroponic Grower serves as a comprehensive guide to soilless culture (hydroponics) for hobby and commercial growers. Extensively updated from the seventh edition published in 2013, this bestseller is a "methods" book to show the reader how to set up a hydroponic operation with the options of using any of many hydroponic cultures presently used in the industry to grow vegetable crops. Written by Dr Howard M. Resh, a recognized authority worldwide on hydroponics, the book presents detailed information on hydroponic growing systems and features more than 600 photographs (200 in full color), drawings, and tables.
doi: 10.1201/9781003133254 link: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003133254/hydroponic-food-production-howard-resh
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Continuous and Real-Time Measurement of Plant Water Potential Using an AAO-Based Capacitive Humidity Sensor for Irrigation Control

2022

Sanghoon Han,Woojoong Kim,Hyun Jae Lee,Robin Joyce,Junghoon Lee

publication: ACS Applied Electronic Materials

Abstract

Water potential measurement is an essential factor in determining water consumption management and recycling in the agricultural field. We report the development of a continuous water potential measurement system using sensors for water stress analysis in tomato plants with better irrigation plan feedback. The water potential sensor uses the capacitive sensing principle which measures humidity inside an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) layer. An analog to digital converter with a wireless communication module system records the capacitance data of the sensing system. Calibration data of sensors derived from superabsorbent polymer (SP) and deionized water (DIW) mixtures can represent their water potential value. The method showed good matching of capacitance and water potential values above −7 MPa, matching the result obtained in tomato stem. The measurements were conducted for a few days with the sap flow and water potential sensors connected in series on a tomato stem. When sunlight is sufficient, sap flow increases; meanwhile, water potential decreases. The opposite phenomenon could be observed during the nighttime. With irrigation restricting conditions, both sap flow and water potential signal decrease, triggering the emergency watering signals. This continuous water potential sensing system can quantitatively monitor the plant stem’s water stress and set irrigation schedules to achieve high-quality products in the agricultural field.
doi: 10.1021/acsaelm.2c01111 link: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsaelm.2c01111
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Development and growth in space

2022

Siok Kuan Tambyah

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Root-zone Water Stress Assessment for the Advanced Plant Habitat (APH) Inaugural Mission on the International Space Station (ISS).

2022

R. Heinse, O. Monje, J. Richards, N. Dufour, N. Lewis

publication: 44th COSPAR Scientific Assembly

Abstract

Although plant experiments in microgravity recently celebrated a 40-year anniversary, identifying optimal water-distribution and nutrient supply conditions for efficient plant growth using granular substrates in reduced gravity remains a significant challenge and opportunity. The first Advanced Plant Habitat (APH) study, named as the PH-01 mission on International Space Station (ISS), provided an excellent opportunity to study the effectiveness of its watering regimen. PH-01 is a space biology study using Arabidopsis lines of differing lignin contents on ISS being led by Washington State University (N.G. Lewis PI) with consortium members from LANL, PNNL and UNM. The corresponding ground controls were conducted at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). With the ISS and KSC soil moisture data obtained, we (1) analyzed existing root-zone data collected during the PH-01 mission comparing water and nutrient delivery between KSC and ISS, and (2) used numerical modeling in Hydrus 3D to test inhomogeneities in water distribution. Our analyses suggest discrepancies between volumetric water contents and hydraulic potential control that are hypothesized to be caused by hysteretic water redistributions. We will present data that help frame an optimization problem for management strategies that minimize crop stress by providing balanced root resource fluxes and promote uniform root distributions that will avoid the observed discrepancies. Optimizing granular substrates for efficient plant growth/development in reduced (micro and partial) gravity environments is also applicable to future plant growth systems to be deployed in extra-terrestrial environments, such as on the Moon and Mars.
link: https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022cosp...44.2830H/abstract
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A New Flavanone from Chromolaena tacotana (Klatt) R. M. King and H. Rob, Promotes Apoptosis in Human Breast Cancer Cells by Downregulating Antiapoptotic Proteins

2022

Gina Mendez-Callejas,Ruben Torrenegra,Diego Muñoz,Crispin Celis,Michael Roso,Jojhan Garzon,Ferney Beltran,Andres Cardenas

publication: Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)

Abstract

Chromolaena tacotana is a source of flavonoids with antiproliferative properties in human breast cancer cells, the most common neoplasm diagnosed in patients worldwide. Until now, the mechanisms of cell death related to the antiproliferative activity of its flavonoids have not been elucidated. In this study, a novel flavanone (3',4'-dihydroxy-5,7-dimethoxy-flavanone) was isolated from the plant leaves and identified by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS). This molecule selectively inhibited cell proliferation of triple-negative human breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 whit IC₅₀ values of 25.3 μg/mL and 20.8 μg/mL, respectively, determined by MTT assays with a selectivity index greater than 3. Early and late pro-apoptotic characteristics were observed by annexin-V/7-AAD detection, accompanied by a high percentage of the Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic protein inactivated and the activation of effector Caspase-3 and/or 7 in breast cancer cells. It was verified the decreasing of XIAP more than Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic proteins expression, as well as the XIAP/Caspase-7 and Bcl-2/Bax complexes dissociation after flavanone treatment. Docking and molecular modeling analysis between the flavanone and the antiapoptotic protein XIAP suggests that the natural compound inhibits XIAP by binding to the BIR3 domain of XIAP. In this case, we demonstrate that the new flavanone isolated from leaves of Chomolaena tacotana has a promising and selective anti-breast cancer potential that includes the induction of intrinsic apoptosis by downregulation of the anti-apoptotic proteins XIAP and Bcl-2. New studies should deepen these findings to demonstrate its potential as an anticancer agent.
doi: 10.3390/molecules28010058 pubmed: 36615253 link: https://paulogentil.com/pdf/The%20Accuracy%20of%20Prediction%20Equations%20for%20Estimating%201-R...
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Photon flux calibration of LED in horticulture lighting

2022

Jinyun Yan,Hui Liu,Weiqiang Zhao,Ying Su

publication: HortScience

Abstract

Solid-state lighting based on the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) is potentially one of the biggest advancements in horticultural lighting in decades. LEDs can play a variety of roles in horticultural lighting, including use in controlled environment research, lighting for tissue culture, and supplemental and photoperiod lighting for greenhouses. LED lighting systems have several unique advantages over existing horticultural lighting, including the ability to control spectral composition, the ability to produce very high light levels with low radiant heat output when cooled properly, and the ability to maintain useful light output for years without replacement. LEDs are the first light source to have the capability of true spectral composition control, allowing wavelengths to be matched to plant photoreceptors to provide more optimal production and to influence plant morphology and composition. Because they are solid-state devices, LEDs are easily integrated into digital control systems, facilitating special lighting programs such as “daily light integral” lighting and sunrise and sunset simulations. LEDs are safer to operate than current lamps because they do not have glass envelopes or high touch temperatures, and they do not contain mercury. The first sustained work with LEDs as a source of plant lighting occurred in the mid-1980s to support the development of new lighting systems to be used in plant growth systems designed for research on the space shuttle and space station. These systems progressed from simple red-only LED arrays using the limited components available at the time to high-density, multicolor LED chip-on-board devices. As light output increases while device costs decrease, LEDs continue to move toward becoming economically feasible for even large-scale horticultural lighting applications.
doi: 10.1117/12.2642847 link: https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/43/7/article-p1947.xml
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Life support systems for space missions

2022

Veronica De Micco,Carmen Arena,Luca Di Fino,Livio Narici

publication: Frontiers in plant science

Abstract

For deep space exploration, radiation effects on astronauts, and on items fundamental for life support systems, must be kept under a pre-agreed threshold to avoid detrimental outcomes. Therefore, it is fundamental to achieve a deep knowledge on the radiation spatial and temporal variability in the different mission scenarios as well as on the responses of different organisms to space-relevant radiation. In this paper, we first consider the radiation issue for space exploration from a physics point of view by giving an overview of the topics related to the spatial and temporal variability of space radiation, as well as on measurement and simulation of irradiation, then we focus on biological issues converging the attention on plants as one of the fundamental components of Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS). In fact, plants in BLSS act as regenerators of resources (i.e. oxygen production, carbon dioxide removal, water and wastes recycling) and producers of fresh food. In particular, we summarize some basic statements on plant radio-resistance deriving from recent literature and concentrate on endpoints critical for the development of Space agriculture. We finally indicate some perspective, suggesting the direction future research should follow to standardize methods and protocols for irradiation experiments moving towards studies to validate with space-relevant radiation the current knowledge. Indeed, the latter derives instead from experiments conducted with different radiation types and doses and often with not space-oriented scopes.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1001158 pubmed: 36212311 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S009457659700012X
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Hereditary analysis and genotype × environment interaction effects on growth and yield components of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) over multi-environments

2022

Md Mahmudul Hasan Khan,Mohd Y. Rafii,Shairul Izan Ramlee,Mashitah Jusoh,Md Al Mamun

publication: Scientific reports

Abstract

This investigation was carried out to explore G × E interaction for yield and its associated attributes in 30 Bambara groundnut genotypes across four environments in tropical Malaysia. Such evaluations are essential when the breeding program's objective is to choose genotypes with broad adaption and yield potential. Studies of trait relationships, variance components, mean performance, and genetic linkage are needed by breeders when designing, evaluating, and developing selection criteria for improving desired characteristics in breeding programs. The evaluation of breeding lines of Bambara groundnut for high yield across a wide range of environments is important for long-term production and food security. Each site's experiment employed a randomized complete block design with three replicates. Data on vegetative and yield component attributes were recorded. The analysis of variance revealed that there were highly significant (p ≤ 0.01) differences among the 30 genotypes for all variables evaluated. A highly significant and positive correlation was identified between yield per hectare and dry seed weight (0.940), hundred seed weight (0.844), fresh pod weight (0.832), and total pod weight (0.750); the estimated correlation between dry weight of pods and seed yield was 1.0. The environment was more important than genotype and G × E in determining yield and yield components.A total of 49% variation is covered by PC1 (33.9%) and PC2 (15.1%) and the genotypes formed five distinct clusters based on Ward hierarchical clustering (WHC) method. The genotypes S5G1, S5G3, S5G5, S5G6, S5G8, S5G7, S5G2, S5G4, S5G10, S5G13, S5G11, and S5G14 of clusters I, II, and III were closest to the ideal genotype with superior yield across the environments. The PCA variable loadings revealed that an index based on dry pod weight, hundred seed weight, number of total pods and fresh pod weight could be used as a selection criteria to improve seed yield of Bambara groundnut.
doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-19003-z pubmed: 36123374 link: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=W2UcOAa0kb0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA115&dq=Growth+analysis+and+y...
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3D Printing of Hydrogel-Based Seed Planter for In-Space Seed Nursery

2022

Yanhua Huang,Li Yu,Liangkui Jiang,Xiaolei Shi,Hantang Qin

publication: Kim, KY., Monplaisir, L., Rickli, J. (eds) Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing: The Human-Data-Technology Nexus . FAIM 2022. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Springer, Cham.

Abstract

Interest in manufacturing parts using 3D printing became popular across academic and industrial sectors because of its improved reliability and accessibility. With the necessity of self-sustentation, growing plant in space is one of the most popular topics. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is one of the best candidates for sprouting substrate with 3D printing fabrication as it is non-toxic, biodegradable, and suitable for extrusion-based 3D printing. Soybeans were placed into the designed and printed CMC gel with different orientations. Without visible light, soybeans with hilum facing side had the highest water absorption average comparing those facing up or down. Hydrogel weight dominated the water absorption efficiency. These findings signified that bean orientation affects the sprouting process. This study demonstrates the substrate geometry and seed orientation impacts on germination of soybeans, proposed guidelines for optimizing the sprouting process for high-level edible plants and promoting innovated in-space seed nursery approach.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-18326-3_6 link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-18326-3_6
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Diagnosing an Opportunistic Fungal Pathogen on Spaceflight-Grown Plants Using the MinION Sequencing Platform

2022

Natasha J. Haveman,Andrew C. Schuerger

publication: Astrobiology

Abstract

Sustainable agriculture in microgravity is integral to future long-term human space exploration. To ensure the efficient and sustainable cultivation of plants in space, a contingency plan to monitor plant health and mitigate plant diseases is necessary. Yet, neither methods nor tools currently exist to evaluate the plant microbial interactions or to diagnose potential plant diseases in space-based bioregenerative life support systems. In this study, we show how the MinION sequencing platform can be used to diagnose the opportunistic pathogen Fusarium oxysporum sensu lato, a fungal infection on Zinnia hybrida (zinnia) plants that were grown on the International Space Station (ISS) in 2015–2016. Genomic DNA from the infected plant material (root and leaf tissues) retrieved from the ISS were extracted and sequenced. In addition, pure cultures of Burkholderia contaminans, F. oxysporum sensu lato, and Fusarium sporotrichioides were used as controls to test the specificity of the bioinformatics pipeline developed. The results show that the MinION platform can be used to accurately differentiate between fusaria species and strengthens the case for using the platform as a rapid plant disease diagnostic tool in space.
doi: 10.1089/ast.2021.0049 link: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ast.2021.0049
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New Insights Gained from Integrated Multi-omics Analyses of Lignin-reduced Arabidopsis Lines on ISS and on Earth

2022

N Lewis, L Davin, M Costa, S Moinuddin, E Hanschen, S Starkenburg, S Koehler, B Winnacott, K Hixson, M Lipton

publication: 44th COSPAR Scientific Assembly

Abstract

Here we report insights gained on the integrated multi-omics analyses of various lignin-reduced lines of the model vascular plant species, Arabidopsis thaliana, from two grow-outs in the Advanced Plant Habitat (APH) on International Space Station (ISS); corresponding ground controls were conducted at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). These studies represent the first scientific mission deployment of the APH on ISS. Lignin biopolymers enable vascular plants to stand upright against forces of gravity by reinforcing their cell walls in the vasculature, to afford conduits to enable water/nutrient transport, and as a protective barrier to opportunistic pathogens. Conversely, lignin in different plant tissues and organs significantly reduces overall plant digestibility (by mammals) and nutritional benefit of vascular plants. Arabidopsis lignin-reduced mutants (adt5, adt4/5, adt3/4/5, and adt3/4/5/6) were obtained by generating homozygous knockouts of genes encoding arogenate dehydratase (ADT) as well as those with a carbon concentrating mechanism, CCM (e.g. adt3/4/5/6/CCM). Plants were daily monitored telemetrically, where unusual stem growth orientation was noted particularly with lignin-reduced mutant lines. Aerial tissues (stems and leaves) were harvested on ISS at approximately 6 weeks, then immediately freezer stored and returned later to Earth. Stem and leaf tissues of all lines were individually subjected to multi-omics (metabolomics, transcriptomics, lipidomics, proteomics and phospho-proteomics) analyses, with results compared to their corresponding wild type (WT) lines. Comparable ground controls were completed at KSC. Here we discuss our consortium's integrated multi-omics analyses and the insights gained, as well as the current rationale for the unusual Arabidopsis stem growth/development behavior observed on ISS, together with the potential for lignin reduced plant lines in extra-terrestrial environments. Supported by NNX15AG56G - An Integrated Omics Guided Approach to Lignification and Gravitational Responses: The Final Frontier
link: https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022cosp...44.2614L/abstract
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Large-Scale Crop Production for the Moon and Mars: Current Gaps and Future Perspectives

2022

Lucie Poulet,Kenneth Engeling,Tyler Hatch,Sarah Stahl-Rommel,Yo-Ann Velez Justiniano,Sarah Castro-Wallace,Jess Bunchek,Oscar Monje,Mary Hummerick,Christina L. M. Khodadad,LaShelle E. Spencer,Josie Pechous,Christina M. Johnson,Ralph Fritsche,Gioia D. Massa,Matthew W. Romeyn,Aubrie E. O’Rourke,Raymond W. Wheeler

publication: Front. Astron. Space Sci.

Abstract

In this perspectives paper, we identify major challenges for space crop production: altered convection in the microgravity environment, scheduling and logistics, crew time and the need for advanced automation, robotics, modeling, and machine learning. We provide an overview of the existing space crop production gaps identified by the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) space crop production team and discuss efforts in current development in NASA projects to address these gaps. We note that this list may not be exhaustive but aims to present the baseline needs for space crop production implementation and a subset of current solutions to the greater scientific community in order to foster further ingenuity.
doi: 10.3389/fspas.2021.733944 link: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspas.2021.733944/full
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On mass dynamics in a closed ecological system, determined with a prototype vacuum mass comparator – a methodological validation study

2022

Thomas Lintzen,Markus Pabst,Thomas Fröhlich

publication: Technisches Messen

Abstract

The aim of this work was to validate a novel methodology for high-resolution, repetitive measurements of mass dynamics of biological processes and structures in a closed plant-earth ecosystem consisting of Mammillaria vetula and microorganisms. To perform these experiments, the living system was materially welded into a newly developed Titanium Weighing Hollow Body (TWHB) with a laser. Three non-vital, also hermetically welded and high-vacuum suitable, externally identical TWHBs, filled with sand, served as controls. All TWHBs were equipped with a feedthrough and integrated light source. LEDs generated continuous light in all four bodies, which drove the photobiological processes in the vital test body and allowed long-term growth. Mass differences of the TWHBs were measured with a vacuum mass comparator at four points in time three months apart against two stainless steel mass standards. The expanded measurement uncertainty of the mass increase of the vital TWHB was calculated according to the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM) in each of the three independent experiments. The mass gain of the vital over the three nonvital TWHBs over the total experimental period of 9 months was +18 μg with the expanded measurement uncertainty 30 μg. The resulting mass gain would have had to be >48μg to be considered statistically significant with a confidence level of 97.7%; time intervals over three and six months were also not significant. The study validates for the first time a methodology capable of measuring mass dynamics of living matter over time, when statistically sound conclusions with measurement uncertainties in the microgram range are required. This opens up a new level of precision mass measurements, which makes the methodology a candidate, e.g., for the verification of the principle of mass conservation in the life-sciences.
doi: 10.1515/teme-2022-0086 link: https://doi.org/10.1515/teme-2022-0086
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Assessing Radish Health during Space Cultivation by Gene Transcription.

2023

Karl H. Hasenstein,Susan P. John,Joshua P. Vandenbrink

publication: Plants (Basel, Switzerland)

Abstract

During the Advanced Plant Habitat experiment 2, radish plants were grown in two successive grow-outs on the International Space Station (ISS) for 27 days each. On days 10, 18, and 24, leaf punch (LP) samples were collected and frozen. At harvest, bulb tissue was sampled with oligo-dT functionalized Solid Phase Gene Extraction (SPGE) probes. The space samples were compared with samples from ground controls (GC) grown at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) under the same conditions as on the ISS, with notably elevated CO₂ (about 2500 ppm), and from lab plants grown under atmospheric CO₂ but with light and temperature conditions similar to the KSC control. Genes corresponding to peroxidase (RPP), glucosinolate biosynthesis (GIS), protein binding (CBP), myrosinase (RMA), napin (RSN), and ubiquitin (UBQ) were measured by qPCR. LP from day 24 and bulb samples collected at harvest were compared with RNA-seq data from material that was harvested, frozen, and analyzed after return to Earth. The results showed stable transcription in LP samples in GC but decreasing values in ISS samples during both grow-outs, possibly indicative of stress. SPGE results were similar between GC and ISS samples. However, the RNA-seq analyses showed different transcription profiles than SPGE or LP results, possibly related to localized sampling. RNA-seq of leaf samples showed greater variety than LP data, possibly because of different sampling times. RSN and RPP showed the lowest transcription regardless of method. Temporal analyses showed relatively small changes during plant development in space and in ground controls. This is the first study that compares developmental changes in space-grown plants with ground controls based on a comparison between RNA-seq and qPCR analyses.
doi: 10.3390/plants12193458 pubmed: 37836197 link: https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/12/19/3458
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The Lunar One‐Sixth Low Gravity Conduciveness to the Improvement of the Cold Resistance of Plants

2023

Gengxin Xie,Jing Yang,Yuxuan Xu,Yuanxun Zhang,Dan Qiu,Jinghang Ding

publication: Microgravity Science and Technology

Abstract

For humanity to complete its ambitious solar system exploration, it is crucial to comprehend how terrestrial life reacts to differing planet gravity. We followed the life trajectory of an earth cotton seed's germination, development, and ultimate fate after prolonged exposure to extremely low temperatures using the life-regeneration ecosystem carried by Chang'e 4 probe, which landed on the Moon on January 3rd, 2019, for the first time in human history. In a controlled environment with similar characteristics, such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, and nutrition, we compared this life trajectory on the moon to that on Earth, except for the differences in gravity, light, and radiation. We discovered that the 1/6 g moon gravity speeds up seed germination. Surprisingly, Moon seed-lings demonstrated rapid acclimatization to super-freezing (below minus 52 degrees Celsius) under 1/6 g lunar gravity, maintaining upright and green despite exposure to long-term extremely cold temperatures for 18–24 hours. Based on cellular and molecular reactions caused by moon-low gravity, we suggest probable mechanisms for cold resilience. These unique findings will enhance our understanding of how plants adapt to suboptimal environmental conditions in space.
doi: 10.1007/s12217-023-10058-9 link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12217-023-10058-9
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The first biological experiments on the lunar show that low gravity conditions will acclimate to super-freezing

2023

GX Xie, J Yang, YX Xu, YX Zhang, D Qiu, JH Ding

publication: preprint

Abstract

For humanity to complete its ambitious solar system exploration, it is crucial to comprehend how terrestrial life reacts to differing planet gravity. We followed the life trajectory of an earth cotton seed's germination, development, and ultimate fate after prolonged exposure to extremely low temperatures using the life-regeneration ecosystem carried by Chang'e 4 probe, which landed on the Moon on January 3rd, 2019, for the first time in human history. In a controlled environment with similar characteristics, such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, and nutrition, we compared this life trajectory on the moon to that on Earth, except for the differences in gravity, light, and radiation. We discovered that the 1/6 g moon gravity speeds up seed germination. Surprisingly, Moon seedlings demonstrated rapid acclimatization to super-freezing (below minus 52 degrees Celsius) under 1/6 g lunar gravity, maintaining upright and green despite exposure to long-term extremely cold temperatures for 18–24 hours. Based on cellular and molecular reactions caused by moon-low gravity, we suggest probable mechanisms for cold resilience. These unique findings will enhance our understanding of how plants adapt to suboptimal environmental conditions in space.
doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2372108/v1 link: https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-2372108/latest
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Cellulose hydrolysis and bioethanol production from various types of lignocellulosic biomass after microwave-assisted hydrotropic pretreatment

2023

Dawid Mikulski,Grzegorz Kłosowski

publication: Renewable Energy

Abstract

This study examined the impact of microwave-assisted hydrotropic pretreatment using sodium cumene sulfonate on the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose contained in pine chips, beech chips and wheat straw biomasses as well as the effectiveness of the production of bioethanol from the obtained hydrolysates. The effectiveness of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose contained in beech chips and wheat straw subjected to pretreatment in optimised process conditions amounted to ca. 55–60%. As a result of this, hydrolysates containing glucose in the concentration of 76–84 g/L were acquired, which is a significant achievement in the case of cellulosic hydrolysates. A lower efficiency of the process was recorded when cellulose from pine chips was used (maximum hydrolysis efficiency was 17.21 ± 0.09%), which confirms a higher resistance of softwood biomass to the process of biodegradation. The highest concentration of ethanol, at the level of 41.44 ± 0.55 g/L, was achieved through the fermentation of the medium being a hydrolysate of wheat straw after microwave-assisted hydrotropic pretreatment. The developed raw material and hydrolysate preparation method indicates the possibility of using wheat straw after microwave-assisted hydrotropic pretreatment for efficient cellulosic ethanol production using high-gravity (HG) technology.
doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2023.02.061 link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960148123002057
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Plants For Space References

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